SUMMER 2020

Governance and the Rule of Law

**President Nayib Bukele attending an event during his time as Mayor of San Salvador.**

“File:Gobernando con la Gente (23941056593).jpg” by Presidencia El Salvador from San Salvador, El Salvador, América Central is licensed under CC0 1.0.

Maintaining government accountability and limiting the powers of the executive branch are some of the current challenges faced by El Salvador in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. Human Rights Watch and the Washington Office on Latin America have addressed the existence of human rights violations by Bukele’s administration. Lack of accurate reporting on COVID-19 cases also represents a challenge to governance in El Salvador.

Human rights defenders and organizations have denounced Bukele’s enforcement of rigid stay-at-home orders due to instances of arbitrary arrests and police violence .
Journalists and institutions, such as the Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos de El Salvador, have questioned the transparency of Bukele’s social media-based messaging to the public.
The Ministry of Health purchased 800,000 masks from Grupo GME Inversiones, and 22% of the masks were found to be defective.
Prior to the pandemic, Nayib Bukele’s overall approval rating reached 92.5% in May. The rating has remained high throughout the pandemic.
In May, Bukele attempted to extend the state-of-emergency decree, but the motion was suspended by the Supreme Court, which claimed the extension was in violation of the Constitution.
Tensions between the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches have been heightened during the pandemic due to Bukele’s repeatedly unilaterally-decided actions.
Relying on the broad constituent support of his administration, Bukele stated in May that there would be a total “reform of the state” after the pandemic.
The president has taken to social media on multiple occasions to call out journalists, civil organizations, and political opponents on issues of human rights amid the pandemic.
Government accountability for providing accurate numbers of cases during the pandemic has become a point of concern for civil organizations and journalists.
The president authorized the police and military to use lethal force against gang members amid a spike in homicides, in which 53 people were killed in one weekend in June.
The National Assembly announced it would suspend all administrative and judicial procedural terms and deadlines during the crisis, including administrative hearings and requests for the Institute of Access to Public Information.

See Select Resources for Governance and the Rule of Law

Growth and Innovation

**‘El Salvador familias productoras’ from the series ‘Podemos ser la generación hambre cero’.**

“El Salvador familias productoras” by Podemos ser la generación Hambre Cero is licensed under CC0 1.0.

The pandemic presents challenges to overall economic stability in El Salvador, where remittances have fallen significantly since the government’s installation of quarantine measures. Rising unemployment in the formal and informal sectors and food insecurity for marginalized communities constitute prominent challenges to growth and innovation.

A $300 subsidy became available for Salvadorans to claim for financial assistance; however, many citizens never received the payment due to technical issues or lack of internet access.
The World Food Program donated $3 million to the Government of El Salvador in order to provide more than 11,500 families with funds to purchase food necessities.
The Legislative Assembly approved the transfer of $3 million in funds from the Budget of Finance to the national health budget in July.
El Salvador’s largely informal economy raises concerns regarding rising poverty and inequality in the country, in which 73% of the working population have informal jobs.
It is projected that more than 110,000 homes are at risk of dropping below the poverty line, which could mean an increase in poverty levels from 4.5% to 5.5%.
The Instituto Salvadoreño de Seguro Social reports only a 2.1% decline in workers in both the public and private formal sectors of the economy amid the crisis.
Due to rising unemployment levels in the US, remittances to El Salvador experienced a major decline. In April of 2020, they had dropped by 40% compared to April of 2019.
The economy of El Salvador is expected to contract by almost 5% by the end of 2020.
More than 30,000 homes were damaged due to Storm Amanda in June, exacerbating the already devastating economic and social consequences of the pandemic.
A rise in deaths at home for patients suspected to have coronavirus has shed light on the strength of the healthcare system and issues of oversaturation in the country’s hospitals.
Food insecurity in rural and indigenous communities continues to be an issue. Members of the Nahuatl community struggle with the impacts of hunger compounded with the pandemic.
Overall poverty in El Salvador affects 26.3% of households or 1.7 million people.

See Select Resources for Growth and Innovation

Social and Cultural Inclusion

**The countryside in El Salvador.**

“El Salvador familias productoras” by Podemos ser la generación Hambre Cero is licensed under CC0 1.0.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, El Salvador faces grave challenges, such as gender-based violence, especially through cyber harassment, and food insecurity, particularly for rural indigenous communities such as the Nahuatl. Grassroots organizations such as Solidaritón have attempted to provide rural and indigenous communities with security and access to crucial resources.

Quarantine facilities, such as that in Jiquilisco, have left many Salvadorans already living below the poverty line with limited access to basic necessities.
The pandemic has prompted an increase in gender-based violence against women through domestic violence. More than 200 complaints of violence against women were reported from March 17 to May 22.
More than 100 organizations and women human rights defenders have denounced the Bukele administration’s actions in limiting freedom of the press and putting the safety of journalists at risk.
Some urban artists in San Salvador who make a living through access to public spaces, which are now closed due to strict quarantine measures, continue to express their discontent with the government and sentiments of unity within their communities through rap.
Solidaritón, a grassroots organization founded amidst the pandemic, provided quarantine facilities with resources such as hand sanitizer, masks, food, clothing, and medicine.
Salvadoran doctors living outside of the country established a GoFundMe for providing doctors in the country’s hospitals with necessary medical supplies like masks.
There have been 30% more calls to the police concerning domestic violence in the first two months of quarantine this year than in the same two months of 2019.
Indigenous communities and organizations have expressed concern over the lack of recognition of the disproportionate effects on indigenous populations during the pandemic.
The Journalists Association of El Salvador issued a statement condemning the actions of Bukele during the pandemic, as well as the worsening conditions and health risks many journalists are facing today.

See Select Resources for Social and Cultural Inclusion

FALL 2020

Governance and Rule of Law

Maintaining government accountability and limiting the powers of the executive branch are some of the challenges El Salvador faces in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. Human rights defenders have called out human rights violations committed by the Bukele administration. This November, Hurricane Eta has increased the vulnerabilities in El Salvador’s healthcare system.

Human rights defenders and organizations have denounced Bukele’s enforcement of rigid stay-at-home orders due to instances of arbitrary arrests and police violence .
Journalists and institutions, such as the Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos de El Salvador, have questioned the transparency of Bukele’s social media-based messaging to the public.
On August 9, the constitutional chamber of El Salvador’s Supreme Court of Justice declared an executive decree that would declare protocols for the gradual reopening of the economy unconstitutional.
Bukele publicly criticized the five magistrates of the Supreme Court who ruled that the reopening of the economic law was unconstitutional.UN Special Rapporteur Diego García-Sayán deemed Bukele’s actions as an attack on judicial independence and unacceptable.
Bukele criticized the United Nations for its lack of leadership in responding to the pandemic.
El Salvador reopened airports for international flights starting September 19.
Prior to the pandemic, Nayib Bukele’s overall approval rating reached 92.5% in May. The rating has remained high throughout the pandemic.
President Bukele, congress, and the Supreme Court clashed with each other over the government’s reopening date.
Tensions between the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches have been heightened during the pandemic due to Bukele’s repeatedly unilaterally-decided actions.
Relying on the broad constituent support of his administration, Bukele stated in May that there would be a total “reform of the state” after the pandemic.
The president has taken to social media on multiple occasions to call out journalists, civil organizations, and political opponents on issues of human rights amid the pandemic.
Government accountability for providing accurate numbers of cases during the pandemic has become a point of concern for civil organizations and journalists.
The president authorized the police and military to use lethal force against gang members amid a spike in homicides, in which 53 people were killed in one weekend in June.
Since the pandemic began, Bukele has stepped up his efforts to deal with gangs. Some in the public believe that Bukele and the gang have signed an informal agreement.

Growth and Innovation

The pandemic presents challenges to overall economic stability in El Salvador, where remittances have fallen significantly since the government’s installation of quarantine measures. Rising unemployment in the formal and informal sectors and food insecurity for marginalized communities constitute prominent challenges to growth and innovation.

On August 24, El Salvador reopened its economy. Previously, the economic reopening plan had been postponed several times due to the rise in the number of confirmed COVID-19 cases.
A $300 subsidy became available for Salvadorans to claim for financial assistance; however, many citizens never received the payment due to technical issues or lack of internet access.
The World Food Program donated $3 million to the government of El Salvador in order to provide more than 11,500 families with funds to purchase food necessities.
As a result of the economic crisis caused by the pandemic, the number of debtors who have difficulties in paying their loans have significantly increased. The Central Bank of El Salvador has established the Temporary Technical Rules for the Treatment of Credits Affected by COVID-19.
The Legislative Assembly approved a package of relief measures and a bill authorizing $2 billion (approximately 8% of gross domestic product) in borrowing to fund all COVID-19-related expenditures and recovery after 2020. 30% of the proceeds from public debt are allocated to municipalities, and the remaining 70% is allocated to foundations.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) provided El Salvador with emergency financial assistance of approximately $389 million. This is the first time the IMF has offered disbursement to El Salvador in 30 years.
El Salvador’s largely informal economy raises concerns regarding rising poverty and inequality in the country, in which 73% of the working population have informal jobs.
It is projected that more than 1.6 million of citizens are at risk of dropping below the poverty line, which could mean an increase in poverty levels from 33.7% to 51.4%.
The Instituto Salvadoreño de Seguro Social reports only a 2.1% decline in workers in both the public and private formal sectors of the economy amid the crisis.
Due to rising unemployment levels in the US, remittances to El Salvador experienced a major decline. In April of 2020, they had dropped by 40% compared to April of 2019.
El Salvador’s economy is expected to shrink by 8.6% in 2020. The Government of El Salvador expects to lose 990 million dollars in taxes by the end of 2020 due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Storm Amanda in June and Hurricane Eta in November damaged more than 30,000 homes, exacerbating the already devastating economic and social consequences of the pandemic.
The Central Bank issued a temporary regulatory bill in the second half of March to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19 on the financial system.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, El Salvador faces grave challenges, such as gender-based violence, especially through cyber harassment, and food insecurity, particularly for rural indigenous communities such as the Nahuatl. Grassroots organizations have attempted to provide rural and indigenous communities with security and access to crucial resources.

The pandemic has prompted an increase in gender-based violence against women through domestic violence. More than 200 complaints of violence against women were reported from March 17 to May 22.
Schools have been closed to in-person activities since March,and despite the country’s August reopening, there is no date set for the reopening of educational institutions..
A rise in deaths at home for patients suspected to have COVID-19 has shed light on the weakness of the healthcare system and issues of oversaturation in the country’s hospitals.
Food insecurity in rural and indigenous communities continues to be an issue. Members of the Nahuatl community struggle with the impacts of hunger compounded with the pandemic.
More than 100 organizations and women human rights defenders have denounced the Bukele administration’s actions in limiting freedom of the press and putting the safety of journalists at risk.
Some urban artists in San Salvador who make a living through access to public spaces, which are now closed due to strict quarantine measures, continue to express their discontent with the government and sentiments of unity within their communities through rap.
Solidaritón, a grassroots organization founded amidst the pandemic, provided quarantine facilities with resources such as hand sanitizer, masks, food, clothing, and medicine.
The health center and hospital have suspended outpatient consultations, resulting in patients with chronic diseases, those in need of family planning services, those needing pre- and post-natal consultations, and those wanting mental health services receiving a lack of care and support.
Salvadoran doctors living outside of the country established a GoFundMe to provide doctors in the country’s hospitals with necessary medical supplies like masks. Some medical staff who revealed insufficient personal protective equipment face threats such as suspension.
There have been 30% more calls to the police concerning domestic violence in the first two months of quarantine this year than in the same two months of 2019.
The Ministry of Health reported an increase in teenage pregnancy rates. During the lockdown, nearly 3,000 teenage girls were reported to be pregnant.
Indigenous communities and organizations have expressed concern over the lack of recognition of the disproportionate effects on indigenous populations during the pandemic.
The Journalists Association of El Salvador issued a statement condemning the actions of Bukele during the pandemic, as well as the worsening conditions and health risks many journalists are facing today.

SPRING 2021

Governance and Rule of Law

In 2021, the Salvadoran government is working hard to promote vaccination. The country’s severe medical and social conditions have also attracted widespread attention from the international community. El Salvador is one of four Latin American countries that have been selected for the “First Wave” initiative. This initiative is a global pilot program to receive a limited number of doses of the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine in advance of their total allotted quota.

On February 28, 2021, El Salvador held a legislative election. The New Ideas Party (Nueva Ideas) led by President Bukele won the largest congressional majority in the country’s history.
The hearing on the El Mozote Massacre case, which was postponed in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was held in April 2021. Terry Karl, a political scientist at Stanford University, testified that at the time of the massacre, the U.S. military attache was near El Mozote in El Salvador.
As of April 30, El Salvador has administered at least 833,959 doses of COVID-19 vaccines to residents of the country. Assuming that each person needs 2 doses, that was enough to vaccinate approximately 6.5% of the country’s population.
President Bukele said that the first round of vaccines included thousands of medical staff.
El Salvador is one of the 92 countries in the world that are receiving vaccines at no cost through the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations (GAVI) of the COVAX Mechanism.
El Salvador has also been selected for the “First Wave” initiative–a global pilot program designed to receive a limited dose of the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine in advance of their total allotted quota.
El Salvador announced that it has been selected by the World Health Organization (WHO) to conduct medical trials with three different vaccines.
President Bukele has taken to social media on multiple occasions to call out journalists, civil organizations, and political opponents on issues of human rights amid the pandemic.
The Salvadoran government has increased restrictions on freedom of media and attacks on journalists during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Government accountability for providing accurate numbers of cases during the pandemic has become a point of concern for civil organizations and journalists.
Journalists and institutions, such as the Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos de El Salvador, have questioned the transparency of Bukele’s social media-based messaging to the public.
The Inter-American Press Association (IAPA) states that El Salvador authority is one of the governments that impose restrictions on press freedom when declaring states of exception to combat the spread of the pandemic.
El Salvador has abused police power and over-relied on law enforcement to implement COVID-19 response measures. Human rights organizations such as Amnesty International demands that President Bukele stop repressing the people.
The Salvadoran government is committed to strengthening the capacity of the public health system, updating various health care centers, and establishing new hospitals that specialize in COVID-19.

Growth and Innovation

The pandemic presents challenges to overall economic stability in El Salvador, where remittances have fallen significantly since the government’s installation of quarantine measures. Rising unemployment in the formal and informal sectors and food insecurity for marginalized communities constitute prominent challenges to growth and innovation. The economic growth in 2022 is expected to drop to 2.5%, even though it was previously expected to rebound by 5% in 2021.

During the pandemic, due to the decline in the transportation capacity of the Panama canal, income was severely reduced, and El Salvador is experiencing a severe trade shock.
El Salvador’s economic growth in 2022 is expected to drop to 2.5%, and it was previously expected to rebound by 5% in 2021. The economy shrunk by 8.7% in 2020.
According to Trading Economics, the unemployment rate in El Salvador is expected to reach 8% by the end of 2021.
El Salvador is negotiating with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain approximately US$1.3 billion in financing to help fill the budget gap in 2021, 2022 and 2023 and reduce the high cost of the debt.
U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris announced on April 26, 2021 that the U.S. will provide $USD 310 million for humanitarian relief and to address food insecurity in Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
The World Bank provided a $20 million loan “El Salvador COVID-19 Emergency Response Project.” This project aims to help prevent, detect and respond to the threat posed by COVID-19.
On April 16, 2021, the World Bank’s Board of Directors approved an additional US$50 million in financing for El Salvador to purchase the COVID-19 vaccine.
As a result of the economic crisis caused by the pandemic, the number of debtors who have difficulties in paying their loans have significantly increased. The Central Bank of El Salvador has established the Temporary Technical Rules for the Treatment of Credits Affected by COVID-19.
The Legislative Assembly approved a package of relief measures and a bill authorizing $2 billion (approximately 8% of gross domestic product) in borrowing to fund all COVID-19-related expenditures and recovery after 2020. 30% of the proceeds from public debt are allocated to municipalities, and the remaining 70% is allocated to foundations.
El Salvador’s largely informal economy raises concerns regarding rising poverty and inequality in the country, in which 73% of the working population have informal jobs.
Due to rising unemployment levels in the US, remittances to El Salvador experienced a major decline. In April of 2020, they had dropped by 40% compared to April of 2019.
Storm Amanda in June and Hurricane Eta in November damaged more than 30,000 homes, exacerbating the already devastating economic and social consequences of the pandemic.
Strong agricultural performance and the rebound in remittances since May 2020 eased the dual shocks of El Salvador’s health and climate.
The government’s significant financial measures squeezed the already tight financial situation of El Salvador, leading to a surge in public debt.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, El Salvador faces grave challenges, such as gender-based violence, especially through cyber harassment, and food insecurity, particularly for rural indigenous communities such as the Nahuatl. Grassroots organizations have attempted to provide rural and indigenous communities with security and access to crucial resources.

In January 2021, due to another outbreak of Covid-19 infection, El Salvador suspended the face-to-face course recovery week in the national education system.
The Salvadoran government announced that starting April 6th, 2021, schools will reopen face-to-face classroom teaching, but the specific details of the class size and schedule are unclear.
The Ministry of Education of El Salvador pledged to provide each student in the public system with a computer to access the virtual class until it is safe to return to the classroom.
It is projected that more than 1.6 million of citizens are at risk of dropping below the poverty line, which could mean an increase in poverty levels from 33.7% to 51.4%. The World Bank predicts that poverty in El Salvador will continue to increase in 2021.
A rise in deaths at home for patients suspected to have COVID-19 has shed light on the weakness of the healthcare system and issues of oversaturation in the country’s hospitals.
Food insecurity in rural and indigenous communities continues to be an issue. Members of the Nahuatl community struggle with the impacts of hunger compounded with the pandemic.
The human rights situation in El Salvador is grim. Gangs forcefully recruit children and sexually abuse women, girls, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people.
The Ombudsman’s Office reported more than 1,600 complaints of human rights violations, including around 620 of the right to freedom of movement during the implementation of the blockade measures.
More than 100 organizations and women human rights defenders have denounced the Bukele administration’s actions in limiting freedom of the press and putting the safety of journalists at risk.
Bukele’s ~~Legislative~~ ~~Victory~~ may continue to threaten El Salvador’s human rights situation and media freedom.
El Salvador is vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, droughts and tropical storms. Hurricane Eta, that hit El Salvador in November 2020, has increased the vulnerabilities in the country’s healthcare system.
There have been 30% more calls to the police concerning domestic violence in the first two months of quarantine this year than in the same two months of 2019. Data from 2021 has not been released yet.
The murder rate in El Salvador has been declining since 2019, but crime and violence still threaten the country’s social development and economic growth, and are one of the main factors driving the migration of Salvadorans.
The Ministry of Health reported an increase in teenage pregnancy rates. During the lockdown, nearly 3,000 teenage girls were reported to be pregnant.
The pandemic has made the situation of transgender people even more difficult, as they cannot get hormones for medication. Before the COVID-19 outbreak, they were unable to obtain proper medical care and were often blackmailed by the police and gangs.
Many sex workers, especially women, have lost their financial resources because of the blockade.

SUMMER 2021

Governance and Rule of Law

In 2021, the Salvadoran government is working hard to promote vaccination. The country’s severe medical and social conditions have also attracted widespread attention from the international community. El Salvador is one of four Latin American countries that have been selected for the “First Wave” initiative. This initiative is a global pilot program to receive a limited number of doses of the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine in advance of their total allotted quota.

On February 28, 2021, El Salvador held a legislative election. The New Ideas Party (Nueva Ideas) led by President Bukele won the largest congressional majority in the country’s history. His party has since named 10 court judges, has voted to extend the tenure of the head of the Supreme Court, and has ousted 5 judges, raising concers about judiciary autonomy and impartiality.
The hearing on the El Mozote Massacre case, which was postponed in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was held in April 2021. Terry Karl, a political scientist at Stanford University, testified that at the time of the massacre, the U.S. military attache was near El Mozote in El Salvador.
The United States Department of State has released the Engel List, a report that identifies 14 Salvadorean nationals who have knowingly engaged in acts of significant corruption, have knowingly undermined democratic processes or institutions, or have violated human rights. Among these individuals are former and current members of the presidential cabinet, advisors to the president, members of the Legislative Assembly and Magistrates of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal. Minister of Labor Rolando Castro, who appears on the list, has publicly said the report has no credibility and is irrelevant to the Bukele administration.
Weeks prior to the release of the Engel List, the Salvadorean Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alexandra Hill, reiterated the Bukele administration’s commitment to stopping undocumented migration by ending corruption in the country and creating labor opportunities in the region during a Central American Integration System meeting.
As of July 2, 2021, El Salvador has administered at least 2,890,503 doses of COVID-19 vaccines to residents of the country. Assuming that each person needs 2 doses, that was enough to vaccinate approximately 22.2% of the country’s population.
El Salvador is one of the 92 countries in the world that are receiving vaccines at no cost through the Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunizations (GAVI) of the COVAX Mechanism.
El Salvador has also been selected for the “First Wave” initiative–a global pilot program designed to receive a limited dose of the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine in advance of their total allotted quota.
El Salvador announced that it has been selected by the World Health Organization (WHO) to conduct medical trials with three different vaccines.
Both the U.S. and China will each deliver 1.5 million doses of the COVID-19 vaccine to El Salvador during July in a display of vaccine diplomacy.
President Bukele has taken to social media on multiple occasions to call out journalists, civil organizations, and political opponents on issues of human rights amid the pandemic.
The Salvadoran government has increased restrictions on freedom of media and attacks on journalists during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has even admitted to systematically monitoring the independent press.
Government accountability for providing accurate numbers of cases during the pandemic has become a point of concern for civil organizations and journalists.
Journalists and institutions, such as the Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos de El Salvador, have questioned the transparency of Bukele’s social media-based messaging to the public.
The Inter-American Press Association (IAPA) states that El Salvador authority is one of the governments that impose restrictions on press freedom when declaring states of exception to combat the spread of the pandemic.
El Salvador has abused police power and over-relied on law enforcement to implement COVID-19 response measures. Human rights organizations such as Amnesty International demands that President Bukele stop repressing the people.
The Salvadoran government is committed to strengthening the capacity of the public health system, updating various health care centers, and establishing new hospitals that specialize in COVID-19.

Growth and Innovation

The pandemic presents challenges to overall economic stability in El Salvador, where remittances have fallen significantly since the government’s installation of quarantine measures. Rising unemployment in the formal and informal sectors and food insecurity for marginalized communities constitute prominent challenges to growth and innovation. The economic growth in 2022 is expected to drop to 2.5%, even though it was previously expected to rebound by 5% in 2021.

During the pandemic, due to the decline in the transportation capacity of the Panama canal, income was severely reduced, and El Salvador is experiencing a severe trade shock.
El Salvador’s economic growth in 2022 is expected to drop to 2.5%, and it was previously expected to rebound by 5% in 2021. The economy shrunk by 8.7% in 2020.
According to Trading Economics, the unemployment rate in El Salvador is expected to reach 8% by the end of 2021.
El Salvador is negotiating with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain approximately US$1.3 billion in financing to help fill the budget gap in 2021, 2022 and 2023 and reduce the high cost of the debt.
El Salvador has become the first country in the world to approve bitcoin as a legal tender, with the intention of simplifying the process of sending remittances into the country. This decision has generated concerns about the unfinished negotiations with the IMF, as well as concerns about the State’s ability to collect taxes in the future. The World Bank has announced that it will not aid El Salvador in its implementation of bitcoin as an official currency.
U.S. Vice President Kamala Harris announced on April 26, 2021 that the U.S. will provide $USD 310 million for humanitarian relief and to address food insecurity in Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador.
The World Bank provided a $20 million loan “El Salvador COVID-19 Emergency Response Project.” This project aims to help prevent, detect and respond to the threat posed by COVID-19.
On April 16, 2021, the World Bank’s Board of Directors approved an additional US$50 million in financing for El Salvador to purchase the COVID-19 vaccine.
As a result of the economic crisis caused by the pandemic, the number of debtors who have difficulties in paying their loans have significantly increased. The Central Bank of El Salvador has established the Temporary Technical Rules for the Treatment of Credits Affected by COVID-19.
The Legislative Assembly approved a package of relief measures and a bill authorizing $2 billion (approximately 8% of gross domestic product) in borrowing to fund all COVID-19-related expenditures and recovery after 2020. 30% of the proceeds from public debt are allocated to municipalities, and the remaining 70% is allocated to foundations.
El Salvador’s largely informal economy raises concerns regarding rising poverty and inequality in the country, in which 73% of the working population have informal jobs.
President Nayib Bukele has requested a 20% increase in the minimum wage starting in August 2021, but has not yet presented tangible plans to help subsidize SMEs as he promised.
Due to rising unemployment levels in the US, remittances to El Salvador experienced a major decline. In April of 2020, they had dropped by 40% compared to April of 2019.
Storm Amanda in June and Hurricane Eta in November damaged more than 30,000 homes, exacerbating the already devastating economic and social consequences of the pandemic.
Strong agricultural performance and the rebound in remittances since May 2020 eased the dual shocks of El Salvador’s health and climate.
The government’s significant financial measures squeezed the already tight financial situation of El Salvador, leading to a surge in public debt.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, El Salvador faces grave challenges, such as gender-based violence, especially through cyber harassment, and food insecurity, particularly for rural indigenous communities such as the Nahuatl. Grassroots organizations have attempted to provide rural and indigenous communities with security and access to crucial resources.

In January 2021, due to another outbreak of Covid-19 infection, El Salvador suspended the face-to-face course recovery week in the national education system.
The Salvadoran government announced that starting April 6th, 2021, schools will reopen face-to-face classroom teaching, but the specific details of the class size and schedule are unclear.
El Salvador is current the 58th out of 65 countries evaluated by the Broadband Development Index. It also occupies the 60th place out of 65 countries in regards to digital infrastructure, putting many students at risk of not having access to virtual classes.
The Ministry of Education of El Salvador pledged to provide each student in the public system with a computer to access the virtual class until it is safe to return to the classroom.
The Legislative Assembly has voted in favor of a new educational model called “My New School,” for which $200 million USD will be invested both in infrastructure improvements and methodological developments.
It is projected that more than 1.6 million of citizens are at risk of dropping below the poverty line, which could mean an increase in poverty levels from 33.7% to 51.4%. The World Bank predicts that poverty in El Salvador will continue to increase in 2021.
A rise in deaths at home for patients suspected to have COVID-19 has shed light on the weakness of the healthcare system and issues of oversaturation in the country’s hospitals.
Food insecurity in rural and indigenous communities continues to be an issue. Members of the Nahuatl community struggle with the impacts of hunger compounded with the pandemic.
The human rights situation in El Salvador is grim. Gangs forcefully recruit children and sexually abuse women, girls, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people.
The Ombudsman’s Office reported more than 1,600 complaints of human rights violations, including around 620 of the right to freedom of movement during the implementation of the blockade measures.
More than 100 organizations and women human rights defenders have denounced the Bukele administration’s actions in limiting freedom of the press and putting the safety of journalists at risk.
Bukele’s legislative victory may continue to threaten El Salvador’s human rights situation and media freedom.
Cases of aggression and violence against journalists have doubled over the first quarter of 2021 in comparison to the first quarter of 2020.
El Salvador is vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, droughts and tropical storms. Hurricane Eta, that hit El Salvador in November 2020, has increased the vulnerabilities in the country’s healthcare system.
There have been 30% more calls to the police concerning domestic violence in the first two months of quarantine this year than in the same two months of 2019. Data from 2021 has not been released yet.
The murder rate in El Salvador has been declining since 2019, but crime and violence still threaten the country’s social development and economic growth, and are one of the main factors driving the migration of Salvadorans.
The Ministry of Health reported an increase in teenage pregnancy rates. During the lockdown, nearly 3,000 teenage girls were reported to be pregnant.
The pandemic has made the situation of transgender people even more difficult, as they cannot get hormones for medication. Before the COVID-19 outbreak, they were unable to obtain proper medical care and were often blackmailed by the police and gangs.
Many sex workers, especially women, have lost their financial resources because of the blockade.

FALL 2021:

Governance and Rule of Law

President Bukele has continued his aggressive vaccination campaign in an attempt to control the pandemic. The country has become one of the first Latin American countries to offer a booster shot, and the first to offer vaccination to children between the ages of 6 and 11, which the WHO has not formally approved.

The Salvadoran government has recorded two days without any deaths from COVID-19 in the past month. Cases have been decreasing throughout the end of 2021.
The government ended a requirement that travelers have a negative COVID-19 test and vaccination card in order to enter the country.
The United States has paused diplomatic relations with El Salvador in late November due to frequent criticisms from President Bukele.
More than 4 million Salvadoreans have received at least one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine. This represents approximately 63% of the population. There are more than 160 vaccine sites throughout the country.
However, in October, the country also recorded the highest number of COVID deaths, 384 deaths, in one month since the beginning of the pandemic.
El Salvador began administering third doses of COVID vaccines in late September.
The country has also begun administering vaccines to children between the ages of 6 and 11.
The latest vaccine import summed to 310,950, including a lot of 188,370 from the United States through the COVAX program.
Congress recently passed a 60-day tax amnesty program. It allows tax debtors an additional 60 days to repay obligations without fines or interest
In May, USAID announced that they would “redirect” US aid dollars in El Salvador away from government institutions towards NGOs in an effort to promote transparency, citing concerns over President Bukele’s authority over the Supreme Court.
The Legislative Assembly passed a law allowing authorities to dismiss judges and prosecutors older than 60 years of age. This may affect up to 200 of the 700 judges in the judiciary system.
The government has fired the judge investigating the 1981 El Mozote massacre, further impeding investigation and prosecution.
President Bukele was perceived as having handled the pandemic most capably compared to other Central American political leaders in a CID Gallup poll.

Growth and Innovation

The controversial adoption of Bitcoin as legal tender in early September has created considerable uncertainty in the Salvadoran economy, compounding the depressive effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Distributional hurdles, technological difficulties, and lack of technical education are impeding the success of the first nationwide test of the cryptocurrency’s potential for day-to-day transactions, provoking protests against President Bukele’s government.

The Salvadoran government continues to purchase reserves of Bitcoin. In late November, the central bank purchased 100 more coins at $54,552.20 each. To date, the government has spent approximately $95 million on bitcoin.
The US government has led an initiative to inject private sector investments into Northern Triangle countries. Major US corporations are being encouraged to commit to long-term investment projects in several countries. El Salvador will begin exporting coffee for US coffee company Nespresso. This project is a much needed economic stimulus as the region continues to recover from the pandemic.
Following El Salvador’s acknowledgement of the People’s Republic of China, the PRC has committed to donating a new stadium and National Library to the country. The estimated cost of the library is $54 million. Although development was stalled by the pandemic, the projects are beginning to move forward.
Bitcoin officially became an accepted legal tender in El Salvador on September 7th. Despite its popularity throughout the pandemic in the US, the change has not been received well by the Salvadoran population.
The government launched a cryptocurrency wallet app, called Chivo, to facilitate the transition. The population was promised that $30 in bitcoin would be deposited into accounts opened in the app.
In early October, government officials were able to mine a fraction of a bitcoin using geothermal energy from a volcano. President Bukele heralded this as an achievement of zero-emission cryptocurrency creation.
A month into the cryptocurrency’s launch, President Bukele has said that three million people have downloaded Chivo, the bitcoin wallet app. An independent foundation has published that bitcoin is being actively used for transactions by only 12% of consumers.
The Salvadoran economy has seen improvement in 2021 as the country recovers from the pandemic, experiencing 24.5% growth in Q2.
Remittances, which the Bukele Administration intended Bitcoin to facilitate, have remained higher than economists expected throughout the pandemic. The majority continue to be sent via cash transfers.
The IMF has publicly stated that El Salvador should reconsider its economic policies, especially regarding bitcoin, in order to continue negotiations for a financial relief package.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

President Bukele, who has been described as a right populist, has done little to advance social and cultural inclusion since his election in February. Alongside Bitcoin protests, organizers continue to advocate for women’s rights and the prosecution of gender-based crimes.

The National Assembly recently banned mass concentrations of people in an effort to curb the spread of COVID. The decree made an exception for cultural, artistic, and sports activities.
Misinformation has become a key issue throughout the pandemic, especially as Spanish language new sources are the origin of misinformation across the globe. The Bukele government has proposed legislation to criminalize misinformation production.
Equitable access to vaccines continues to be challenging for El Salvador. At the recent UN General Assembly, the El Salvadoran delegation stressed concerns over vaccinating migrants.
The imposition of bitcoin as national currency has generated significant pushback. Despite crowd regulations because of the pandemic, protests have occurred in San Salvador in opposition.
Abortion remains illegal in El Salvador, and protests continue to be led by women pressuring the Legislative Assembly to decriminalize abortion in limited circumstances.
Furthermore, marriage equality still remains off the table in discussions of constitutional reform according to President Bukele.
Two former Salvadoran presidents, Alfredo Cristiani and Fransisco Flores, have been named in the Pandora Papers leak, adding to the story of endemic corruption in the region.
Gender-based violence and femicide continues to remain uncontrollable. Femicides increased 15.% percent between January and August of this year. The attorney general Rodolfo Delgado has created a specialized prosecution unit to address crimes against women, children, and other vulnerable groups. Experts presume that economic slowdowns and lockdowns due to the pandemic have exacerbated the situation. The human rights watchdog The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights named El Salvador the most unsafe country for women in Latin America in a recent report.

Select resources for El Salvador:

Governance and the Rule of Law Summer 2020:

Beeken, E. (2020, May 19). El Salvador top court suspends emergency decree. Jurist. https://www.jurist.org/news/2020/05/el-salvador-top-court-suspends-emergency-decree/

“Bukele amenaza el periodismo.” (2020, July 30). El Faro. https://elfaro.net/es/202007/columnas/24691/Bukele-amenaza-al-periodismo.htm

Bukele, N. [@nayibbukele] (2020, March 29). A veces parece qué hay algunas organizaciones de “derechos humanos” que solo trabajan para lograr que mueran más humanos. Cuando [Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/nayibbukele/status/1244370925815988226

Cuéllar, J. E. (2020, July 16). El salvador needs more than savvy messaging. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/en/202004/el_salvador/24259/El-Salvador-Needs-More-than-Savvy-Messaging.htm

Escobar, M. (2020, March 20). Suspenden términos y plazos procesales administrativos y judiciales mientras dure la emergencia nacional. Asamblea Legislativa. https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/node/10192v

Henández, W. (2020, May 28). Bukele se niega a dar informe el 1 de junio, Asamblea lo exige. Elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/nayib-bukele-mario-ponce-informe-asamblea-legislativa/718546/2020/

Kahn, C. (2020, April 27). El Salvador’s president takes on the country’s gangs amid Coronavirus pandemic. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/27/846802762/el-salvadors-president-takes-on-the-country-s-gangs-amid-coronavirus-pandemic

Marroquín, L., & Tejada, R. (2020, May 28). Bukele amenaza con “reformar el Estado de verdad” luego de la pandemia. Elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/nayib-bukele-amenaza-reformar-estado-el-salvador-luego-pandemia/718493/2020/

Nagovitch, P. (2020, May 28). Nayib Bukele’s first year in office. AS/COA. https://www.as-coa.org/articles/nayib-bukeles-first-year-office

Rauda, N., & Alvarado, J. (2020, July 22). 22% de mascarillas que empresa de la familia Escalante vendió a Salud eran inservibles. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/es/202007/el_salvador/24657/El-22-de-mascarillas-que-empresa-de-la-familia-Escalante-vendió-a-Salud-eran-inservibles.htm.

Segura, E. (2020, May 23). Población aprueba trabajo de Bukele ante pandemia. La Prensa Gráfica. https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/Poblacion-aprueba-trabajo-de-Bukele-ante-pandemia-20200523-0030.html

The Washington Office on Latin America. (2020, April 16). Covid-19 no excuse for autocratic actions by El Salvador’s president [Press Release]. https://www.wola.org/2020/04/el-salvador-nayib-bukele-covid-19-response-respect-courts/

The Washington Office on Latin America.. (2020, April 29). El Salvador: Covid-19 doesn’t excuse Bukele’s attacks on rule of law. https://www.wola.org/2020/04/el-salvador-covid-19-bukele-attack-rule-of-law/

Growth and Innovation Summer 2020:

AFP. (2020, June 14). Caída de remesas por pandemia de Covid-19 impacta a El Salvador, Guatemala y Honduras. El Economista. https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/internacionales/Caida-de-remesas-por-pandemia-de-Covid-19-impacta-a-El-Salvador-Guatemala-y-Honduras-20200614-0019.html

A rap against hunger and COVID-19 from El Salvador. (2020, May 22). CE Noticias Financieras.

Asamblea Legislativa. (2020). Decreto No. 681. Gobierno de El Salvador. https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/sites/default/files/documents/decretos/AD03BFAA-6C51-46F1-8B0F-D173D1477B11.pdf.

Covid-19 has squeezed migrants’ remittances to their families; Trickles of gold. (2020, June 15). The Economist. https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/15/covid-19-has-squeezed-migrants-remittances-to-their-families

FRANCE 24 Español. (2020, June 9). El Covid-19 impacta en la seguridad alimentaria de los pueblos indígenas de El Salvador [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/Sl7tT84jPIs

Hernández, N. (2020, July 9). Médicos Sin Fronteras alerta sobre alza de muertes en viviendas y la incapacidad de Salud para responder a la pandemia. Elsalvador.com https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/coronavirus-medicos-sin-fronteras-advierte-de-muertes-en-casas/731603/2020/

Instituto Salvadoreño del Seguro Social. (2020, June 30). Informe de Coyuntura del ISSS Junio 2020. Gobierno de El Salvador. https://www.transparencia.gob.sv/institutions/isss/documents/estadisticas?utf8=✓&q%5Bname_or_description_cont%5D=trabajadores&q%5Byear_cont%5D=&button=&q%5Bdocument_category_id_eq%5D=

Joma, S. (2020, July 16). Salvadoreños en el extranjero lanzan campaña para ayudar a los médicos del Hospital Rosales. Elsalvador.com https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/salvadorenos-exterior-medicos-covid-19-fondos-equipo-pandemia/733574/2020/

Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) International. (2020, June 11). Storm Amanda is the last straw for families in El Salvador amid COVID-19. https://www.msf.org/storm-amanda-last-straw-families-el-salvador-amid-covid-19

Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. (2020, July 2). Gobierno de El Salvador recibe donación de $3 millones del Programa Mundial de Alimentos para beneficiar a 11,500 familias. Gobierno de El Salvador. https://rree.gob.sv/gobierno-de-el-salvador-recibe-donacion-de-3-millones-del-programa-mundial-de-alimentos-para-beneficiar-a-11500-familias/

Recinos, P., Fuentes, C., & Martínez, D. (2020, June 24). Hombre con síntomas de COVID-19 muere en la entrada de su casa en San Salvador. Elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/hombre-sintomas-covid19-muere-entrada-de-casa/726795/2020/

Reyes, M. (2020, April 28). Pandemia dejaría a 110,000 hogares salvadoreños más en la pobreza. Elsalvador.com https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/pobreza-economia-familiar/709720/2020/

Social and Cultural Inclusion Summer 2020:

A rap against hunger and COVID-19 from El Salvador. (2020, May 22). CE Noticias Financieras.

CCNIS Comunicaciones. (2020, June 14). 6 años de reconocimiento constitucional de pueblos indígenas en El Salvador. Consejo Coordinador Nacional Indígena Salvadoreño. http://www.ccniselsalvador.org/ccnis/2020/06/14/6-anos-de-reconocimiento-constitucional-de-pueblos-indigenas-en-el-salvador/

Dada, C. (2020, July 10). The White Flag of Hunger. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/en/202007/el_salvador/24627/The-White-Flag-of-Hunger.htm?utm_source=DB+El+Faro+_English&utm_campaign=1f21559da0-EMAIL_CAMPAIGN_2020_04_22_01_08_COPY_02&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_3ec9190c89-1f21559da0-378729968

Gaitán, I. (2020, July 3). Pronunciamiento ante la difícil situación que enfrentan en esta pandemia periodistas de El Salvador. Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador. http://apes.org.sv/pronunciamiento-ante-la-dificil-situacion-que-enfrentan-en-esta-pandemia-periodistas-de-el-salvador/

Guzmán, V., & Cáceres, G. (2020, July 14). El salvador: Otra pandemia con subregistro. Estación del Silencio. https://estaciondelsilencio.agenciaocote.com/2020/07/15/el-salvador-otra-pandemia-con-subregistro/

Guzmán, V., & Cáceres, G. (2020, July 15). Feminicidios: Otra pandemia con subregistro. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/es/202007/el_salvador/24636/Feminicidios-otra-pandemia-con-subregistro.htm

Iniciativo Mesoamericana de Mujeres Defensoras de Derechos Humanos. (2020, June 19). El Salvador: Organizations express concern about the increase in digital violence against women human rights defenders. https://im-defensoras.org/2020/06/el-salvador-organizations-express-concern-about-the-increase-in-digital-violence-against-women-human-rights-defenders/

International Rescue Committee. (2020, June 9). IRC data shows an increase in reports of gender-based violence across Latin America [Press Release]. https://www.rescue.org/press-release/irc-data-shows-increase-reports-gender-based-violence-across-latin-america

Governance and Rule of Law Fall 2020:

Beeken, E. (2020, May 19). El Salvador top court suspends emergency decree. Jurist. https://www.jurist.org/news/2020/05/el-salvador-top-court-suspends-emergency-decree/

Dudley, S. (2020, October 9). Is there an informal pact between Bukele and the gangs in El Salvador? Open Democracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/democraciaabierta/pacto-informal-bukele-maras-el-salvador-en/

García-Sayán, D. [@UNIndepJudges]. (2020. August 11). #ElSalvador: Es inaceptable el ataque a la independencia y dignificad judicial. Preocupante que el Presidente Nayib Bukele, por cadena de radio y TV, amenace la vida e integridad de los magistrados de la Sala Constitucional, en lugar de promover y respetar el Estado de Derecho. [Tweet].Twitter. https://twitter.com/UNIndepJudges/status/1293232260758437888

Instituto de Acceso a la Información Pública. (2020, June 11). Habilitación de plazos administrativos en materia de acceso a la información. http://www.informacionpublicapgr.gob.sv/descargables/avisosimportantes/2020/ComunicadoIAIP-11062020.pdf

Kahn, C. (2020, April 27). El Salvador’s president takes on the country’s gangs amid Coronavirus pandemic. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/27/846802762/el-salvadors-president-takes-on-the-country-s-gangs-amid-coronavirus-pandemic

Nagovitch, P. (2020, May 28). Nayib Bukele’s first year in office. AS/COA. https://www.as-coa.org/articles/nayib-bukeles-first-year-office

The United Nations. (2020, September 30). UN lacks leadership in dealing with virus: El Salvador. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/americas/un-lacks-leadership-in-dealing-with-virus-el-salvador/1990171

—————. (2020, April 29). El Salvador: Covid-19 doesn’t excuse Bukele’s attacks on rule of law. https://www.wola.org/2020/04/el-salvador-covid-19-bukele-attack-rule-of-law/

Growth and Innovation Fall 2020:

Asamblea Legislativa. (2020). Decreto No. 681. Gobierno de El Salvador. https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/sites/default/files/documents/decretos/AD03BFAA-6C51-46F1-8B0F-D173D1477B11.pdf.

Asociación Salvadoreña de Industriales. (2020, July 20). Economía de El Salvador tendrá la peor caída de Centroamérica. https://industriaelsalvador.com/2020/07/20/economia-de-el-salvador-tendra-la-peor-caida-de-centroamerica/

El Comité de Normas del Banco Central de Reserva de El Salvador. (2020, September 10). NPBT-01 Normas Técnicas Temporales para el Tratamiento de Créditos Afectados por Covid-19. https://www.bcr.gob.sv/regulaciones/upload/NPBT-01.pdf?v=1599884098

The Economist. (2020, June 15). Covid-19 has squeezed migrants’ remittances to their families; Trickles of gold. https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2020/06/15/covid-19-has-squeezed-migrants-remittances-to-their-families

ElSalvador.com. (2020). Pobreza en El Salvador pasará del 33.7% al 51.4% al cierre de 2020. https://www.elsalvador.com/eldiariodehoy/pobreza-el-salvador-economia-covid-19-cierre-2020/730522/2020/

FRANCE 24 Español. (2020, June 9). El Covid-19 impacta en la seguridad alimentaria de los pueblos indígenas de El Salvador [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/Sl7tT84jPIs

International Monetary Fund. (2020, April 14). IMF Executive Board Approves a US$389 Million Disbursement to El Salvador to Address the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/04/14/pr20155-el-salvador-imf-executive-board-approves-a-us-389-million-disbursement-to-address-covid-19

————. (2020, April 16). El Salvador : Staff Report-Request for Purchase Under the Rapid Financing Instrument-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for El Salvador. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2020/04/16/El-Salvador-Staff-Report-Request-for-Purchase-Under-the-Rapid-Financing-Instrument-Press-49333

Reyes, M. (2020, April 28). Pandemia dejaría a 110,000 hogares salvadoreños más en la pobreza. Elsalvador.com https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/pobreza-economia-familiar/709720/2020/

La Vanguardia. (2020, July 2). El Salvador prevé una caída de hasta el 8,5 % de su economía por el COVID-19. https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20200702/482050289930/el-salvador-preve-una-caida-de-hasta-el-85–de-su-economia-por-el-covid-19.html

Social and Cultural Inclusion Fall 2020:

Caballero, L. (2020, July 30). Bukele amenaza el periodismo. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/es/202007/columnas/24691/Bukele-amenaza-al-periodismo.htm

————. (2020, July 15). Feminicidios: Otra pandemia con subregistro. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/es/202007/el_salvador/24636/Feminicidios-otra-pandemia-con-subregistro.htm

Salinas, C. (2020, September 29). Bukele arremete contra el periodismo de El Salvador. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2020-09-30/bukele-arremete-contra-el-periodismo-de-el-salvador.html

The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. (2020, November 4). Hurricane Eta adds to vulnerabilities in northern Central America. https://www.unocha.org/story/hurricane-eta-adds-vulnerabilities-northern-central-america

————. (2020, September 17). Responding to COVID-19 in Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador Format. https://reliefweb.int/report/el-salvador/responding-covid-19-mexico-honduras-and-el-salvador

Governance and Rule of Law Spring 2021:

Alonso-Gamo, P., Goretti, M., and Otker, I. (2020, December 17). When it Rains it Pours: Pandemic and Natural Disasters Challenge Central America’s Economies. IMF Western Hemisphere Department. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2020/12/15/na121720when-it-rains-it-pours-pandemic-and-natural-disasters-challenge-central-americas-economies

Amnesty International. (2020, December 16). Governments and Police Must Stop Using Covid-19 Pandemic As Pretext for Abuse. https://www.amnestyusa.org/press-releases/covid-19-governments-and-police-must-stop-using-pandemic-as-pretext-for-abuse/

Associated Press. (2021, February 16). El Salvador getting its first vaccine from India. https://fox40.com/news/national-and-world-news/el-salvador-getting-its-first-vaccine-from-india/

BBC News. (2021, March 1). El Salvador governing party set for big parliament win. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56245354.

Bukele, N. [@nayibbukele]. (2020, March 29). A veces parece qué hay algunas organizaciones de “derechos humanos” que solo trabajan para lograr que mueran más humanos. Cuando [Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/nayibbukele/status/1244370925815988226

Law Library of Congress. (2020, September). Freedom of Expression during COVID-19. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/covid-19-freedom-of-expression/freedom-of-expression-during-covid-19.pdf

Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). (2021, January 31). Países de las Américas reciben notificación sobre la asignación de vacunas contra la COVID-19 a través de COVAX. https://www.paho.org/es/noticias/31-1-2021-paises-americas-reciben-notificacion-sobre-asignacion-vacunas-contra-covid-19

————. (2021, March 12). El Salvador recibe las primeras vacunas COVID-19 a través del Mecanismo COVAX. https://www.paho.org/es/noticias/12-3-2021-salvador-recibe-primeras-vacunas-covid-19-traves-mecanismo-covax

Rauda, N. and Gressier, R. (2021, April 27). U.S. Government Hid Presence of U.S. Advisor in El Mozote Massacre, Expert Says. El Faro. https://elfaro.net/en/202104/el_salvador/25441/US-Government-Hid-Presence-of-US-Advisor-in-El-Mozote-Massacre-Expert-Says.htm.

Reuters. (2021). World COVID-19 Tracker. El Salvador. https://graphics.reuters.com/world-coronavirus-tracker-and-maps/countries-and-territories/el-salvador/.

————. (2021, April 26). U.S. announces $310 mln in humanitarian, food aid to Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/us-announces-310-mln-humanitarian-food-aid-guatemala-honduras-el-salvador-2021-04-27/.

Trading Economics. (2021). El Salvador Unemployment Rate. https://tradingeconomics.com/el-salvador/unemployment-rate.

————. (2020, April 29). El Salvador: Covid-19 doesn’t excuse Bukele’s attacks on rule of law. https://www.wola.org/2020/04/el-salvador-covid-19-bukele-attack-rule-of-law

The World Bank. (2020, October 9). Overview: The World Bank in El Salvador. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/elsalvador/overview

Growth and Innovation Spring 2021:

Esposito, A. & Renteria, N. (2021, March 4). Exclusive: El Salvador seeks IMF funding, sees ‘golden opportunity’ for economy, says finance minister. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-el-salvador-economy-exclusive/exclusive-el-salvador-seeks-imf-funding-sees-golden-opportunity-for-economy-says-finance-minister-idUSKBN2AW1GV

Reuters. (2021, April 26). U.S. announces $310 mln in humanitarian, food aid to Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/us-announces-310-mln-humanitarian-food-aid-guatemala-honduras-el-salvador-2021-04-27/

World Bank. (2020, April 17). El Salvador and Honduras to receive support from the World Bank to strengthen their response to COVID-19 (coronavirus). https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/04/16/el-salvador-y-honduras-recibiran-apoyo-del-banco-mundial-para-fortalecer-su-respuesta-al-covid-19-coronavirus

————. (2021, April 16). World Bank to Provide US$70 Million for COVID-19 Vaccination in El Salvador and Honduras. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/04/16/el-banco-mundial-proporcionar-us-70-millones-para-la-vacunaci-n-contra-la-covid-19-en-el-salvador-y-honduras.

Social and Cultural Inclusion Spring 2021:

Galdamez, E. (2020, October 12). Poverty in El Salvador, an issue that leads to crime, migration, and health issues. ElSalvadorInfo. https://elsalvadorinfo.net/poverty-in-el-salvador/.

Human Rights Watch. (2021). World Report 2021 El Salvador. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/el-salvador#.

Ministro de Educación. (2021, March 23). Secretario de Innovación entregó computadoras a estudiantes del Complejo Educativo General Fabio Morán. Gobierno de El Salvador. https://www.mined.gob.sv/noticias/item/1016126-secretario-de-innovacion-entrego-computadoras-a-estudiantes-del-complejo-educativo-general-fabio-moran.html

Salinas, C. (2020, September 29). Bukele arremete contra el periodismo de El Salvador. El País.https://elpais.com/internacional/2020-09-30/bukele-arremete-contra-el-periodismo-de-el-salvador.html

————. (2020, September 17). Responding to COVID-19 in Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador Format. https://reliefweb.int/report/el-salvador/responding-covid-19-mexico-honduras-and-el-salvador

Valencia, A. and Salomón, J. (2020, August 12). For many trans women, living in El Salvador is a death sentence. Coronavirus is making it even worse. Amnesty International. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/08/trans-women-el-salvador-death-sentence-coronavirus/
Vivanco, J. (2021, March 17). Bukele’s Legislative Victory Threatens Press Freedom in El Salvador. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/17/bukeles-legislative-victory-threatens-press-freedom-el-salvador

Governance and Rule of Law Summer 2021:

Apes, & Gaitán, I. (2021, June 8). Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador. Asociacin de Periodistas de El Salvador. https://apes.org.sv/apes-alerta-a-la-comunidad-internacional-de-persecucion-a-periodistas-desde-el-ministerio-de-seguridad-y-justicia/.

Associated Press. (2021, February 16). El Salvador getting its first vaccine from India. https://fox40.com/news/national-and-world-news/el-salvador-getting-its-first-vaccine-from-india/

BBC News. (2021, March 1). El Salvador governing party set for big parliament win. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-56245354.

Gobierno de El Salvador. (2021, July 6). Situación Nacional COVID-19 . COVID. https://covid19.gob.sv/.

Guzman , J. (2021, July 5). Gobierno sin informarles a mipymes el mecanismo para darles subsidio ante alza del salario mínimo. Noticias de El Salvador . https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/salario-minimo-consejo-del/855768/2021/.

Law Library of Congress. (2020, September). Freedom of Expression during COVID-19. https://www.loc.gov/law/help/covid-19-freedom-of-expression/freedom-of-expression-during-covid-19.pdf

Mejia, J. C. (2021, July 6). Ministro de Trabajo: “Para el Gobierno la lista Engel es insignificante”: Noticias de El Salvador. Noticias de El Salvador – elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/nacional/ministro-de-trabajo-rolando-castro-para-gobierno-lista-engel-es-insignificante/855816/2021/.

Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. (2021, June 28). El Salvador reafirma compromiso con acciones para mitigar la migración irregular, fortalecer la institucionalidad democrática y luchar contra la corrupción en medio de la pandemia por COVID-19. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de El Salvador. https://rree.gob.sv/el-salvador-reafirma-compromiso-con-acciones-para-mitigar-la-migracion-irregular-fortalecer-la-institucionalidad-democratica-y-luchar-contra-la-corrupcion-en-medio-de-la-pandemia-por-covid-19/.

Renteria, N. (2021, June 30). El Salvador’s appointment of new judges raises fears of power grab. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/el-salvadors-appointment-new-judges-raises-fears-power-grab-2021-06-30/.

Reuters. (2021). World COVID-19 Tracker. El Salvador. https://graphics.reuters.com/world-coronavirus-tracker-and-maps/countries-and-territories/el-salvador/.

Trading Economics. (2021). El Salvador Unemployment Rate. https://tradingeconomics.com/el-salvador/unemployment-rate.

————. (2020, April 29). El Salvador: Covid-19 doesn’t excuse Bukele’s attacks on rule of law. https://www.wola.org/2020/04/el-salvador-covid-19-bukele-attack-rule-of-law

The World Bank. (2020, October 9). Overview: The World Bank in El Salvador. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/elsalvador/overview

United States Department of State. (2021, July 2). Section 353 Corrupt and Undemocratic Actors Report – United States Department of State. U.S. Department of State. https://www.state.gov/reports/section-353-corrupt-and-undemocratic-actors-report/.

Zhou, L. (2021, July 3). China and US go dose to dose in Covid-19 vaccine donations to El Salvador. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3139703/china-and-us-go-dose-dose-covid-19-vaccine-donations-el.

Growth and Innovation Summer 2021:

Al Jazeera. (2021, June 9). El Salvador approves Bitcoin as legal tender. Crypto News | Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/6/9/el-salvador-congress-approves-bitcoin-as-legal-tender.

Campos, R. (2021, June 16). World Bank rejects El Salvador request for help on bitcoin implementation. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/el-salvador-keep-dollar-legal-tender-seeks-world-bank-help-with-bitcoin-2021-06-16/.

Social and Cultural Inclusion Summer 2021:

Asamblea Legislativa. (n.d.). Diputados votan a favor de financiar modelo educativo “Mi Nueva Escuela”. Diputados votan a favor de financiar modelo educativo “Mi Nueva Escuela” | Asamblea Legislativa de El Salvador. https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/node/11348.

Gaitán, I. (2021, May 31). Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador. Asociacion de Periodistas de El Salvador. https://apes.org.sv/boletin-correspondiente-a-mayo-de-2021/.

Galdamez, E. (2020, October 12). Poverty in El Salvador, an issue that leads to crime, migration, and health issues. ElSalvadorInfo. https://elsalvadorinfo.net/poverty-in-el-salvador/.

Human Rights Watch. (2021). World Report 2021 El Salvador. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/el-salvador#.

Reyes, M. (2021, June 30). El país necesita $225.1 millones para reducir la brecha digital: Noticias de El Salvador. Noticias de El Salvador – elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/plataformas-digitales-internet-conexiones-a/853993/2021/.

Salinas, C. (2020, September 29). Bukele arremete contra el periodismo de El Salvador. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2020-09-30/bukele-arremete-contra-el-periodismo-de-el-salvador.html

————. (2020, September 17). Responding to COVID-19 in Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador Format. https://reliefweb.int/report/el-salvador/responding-covid-19-mexico-honduras-and-el-salvador

Vivanco, J. (2021, March 17). Bukele’s Legislative Victory Threatens Press Freedom in El Salvador. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/03/17/bukeles-legislative-victory-threatens-press-freedom-el-salvador

Governance and Rule of Law Fall 2021:

Bernal, R. (2021, May 21). USAID ‘redirects’ El Salvador funds from government to civil society. The Hill. https://thehill.com/latino/554829-usaid-redirects-el-salvador-funds-from-government-to-civil-society.

Bonner, R. and Nelson Rauda. (2021, September 13). Survivors and Families of Victims of a 1981 El Salvador Massacre See Justice Slip Away Again. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/survivors-and-families-of-victims-of-a-1981-el-salvador-massacre-see-justice-slip-away-again.

————. [@cidgallup]. (2021, October 28). De acuerdo a las más reciente encuesta…[Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/cidgallup/status/1453753276663570441.

Delcid, M. (2021, September 14). Vacunarán a niños de entre 6 y 11 años contra el covid-19 en El Salvador. CNN español. https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2021/09/14/el-salvador-vacunas-ninos-6-11-anos-covid-orix/.

Government of El Salvador. (2021, October 11). Situación Nacional COVID-19. https://covid19.gob.sv/.

Jimenez, S. (2021, November 17). Eliminan la prueba negativa de COVID y cartilla de vacuna como requisito para ingresar a El Salvador. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/espanol/california/articulo/2021-11-17/eliminan-la-prueba-negativa-de-covid-y-cartilla-de-vacuna-como-requisito-para-ingresar-a-el-salvador.

Ministerio de Salud: Gobierno de El Salvador. (2021, August 27). El Salvador recibe el trigésimo lote de vacunas anti-COVID-19. https://www.salud.gob.sv/el-salvador-recibe-el-trigesimo-lote-de-vacunas-anti-covid-19/.

Renteria, N. (2021, November 22). U.S. official says El Salvador relations ‘paused’ for lack of interest. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/us-official-says-el-salvador-relations-paused-lack-interest-2021-11-22/.

————. (2021, November 9). El Salvador COVID-19 Tracker. Reuters. https://graphics.reuters.com/world-coronavirus-tracker-and-maps/countries-and-territories/el-salvador/.

————. (2021, September 25). El Salvador to begin giving third dose of COVID-10 vaccine. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/el-salvador-begin-giving-third-dose-covid-19-vaccine-2021-09-25/

Rodríguez, M and Juan Carlos Mejía. (2021, October 5). Asamblea aprueba ley de amnistía fiscal de 60 días para contribuyentes. elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/asamblea-se-dispone-a-aprobar-ley-de-amnistia-fiscal-60-dias/886362/2021/?utm_source=facebook&utm_medium=noticias&utm_campaign=organico.

————. (2021, December 15). El Salvador registra otro día sin fallecidos por COVID-19. Santa Maria Times. https://santamariatimes.com/espanol/noticias/mundo/el-salvador-registra-otro-d-a-sin-fallecidos-por-covid-19/article_232a3df8-0f56-5f5a-9d0a-7f767f48c685.html.

U.S. Embassy San Salvador. (2021, August 26). United States preparing to ship an additional 188,370 doses of Pfizer’s COVID-19 vaccine to El Salvador. https://sv.usembassy.gov/united-states-preparing-to-ship-an-additional-188370-doses-of-pfizers-covid-19-vaccine-to-el-salvador/.

Growth and Innovation Fall 2021:

Bukele, N. [@nayibbukele]. (2021, September 20.) We just bought the dip. [Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/nayibbukele/status/1439815012642611203

Bukele, N. [@nayibbukele]. (2021, October 1). ————. [Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/nayibbukele/status/1443830930997719044

Bukele, N. [@nayibbukele]. (2021, October 3). La nueva BINAES (Biblioteca Nacional de El Salvador) es un proyecto de cooperación no reembolsable (donación) otorgado por la República Popular China. [Tweet] Twitter. https://twitter.com/nayibbukele/status/1444851910981341188

————. (2019, December 4). China regala a El Salvador un estadio y una biblioteca tras su ruputura con Taiwán. El Economista. https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/internacionales/China-regala-a-El-Salvador-un-estadio-y-una-biblioteca-tras-su-ruputura-con-Taiwan-20191204-0026.html

Ellis, E. (2021, March 22). China and El Salvador: An Update. Center for Strategic and International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-and-el-salvador-update

————. (2021, November 04). FMI dice que El Salvador debe cambiar políticas para tener ayuda financiera. Elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/fmi-deuda-bukele-tension-acuerdo/896901/2021/.

————. (2021, September 30). El Salvador’s economy grew 24.5% in the second quarter of 2021. Market Research Telecast. https://marketresearchtelecast.com/el-salvadors-economy-grew-24-5-in-the-second-quarter-of-2021/167847/

Pineda, W and Nelson Renteria. (2021, October 8). One month on, El Salvador’s bitcoin use grows but headaches persist. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/one-month-el-salvadors-bitcoin-use-grows-headaches-persist-2021-10-07/.

Renteria, N. (2021, September 10). El Salvador’s bitcoin digital wallet beset by technical glitches. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/el-salvadors-bitcoin-digital-wallet-beset-by-technical-glitches-2021-09-10/

Tully, S. (2021, October 1.) Scalding water and steam send Bitcoin soaring—but analysts say be wary of El Salvador’s ‘stunt’. Fortune. https://fortune.com/2021/10/01/scalding-water-and-steam-send-bitcoin-soaring-but-analysts-say-be-wary-of-el-salvadors-stunt/

Urquilla, K. (2021, November 26). Bukele anuncia otra compra de 100 bitcoins. Elsalvador.com. https://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/negocios/el-salvador-bitcoin-criptoactivo-nayib-bukele-fmi-city/904111/2021/.

Wright. J. and Priscilla Alvarez. (2021, December 13). Harris to announce new private sector investments in Northern Triangle. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/12/13/politics/kamala-harris-private-sector-investments-north-triangle/index.html.

Social and Cultural Inclusion Fall 2021:

————. (2021, October 21). El Salvador prohíbe las concentraciones masivas por COVID-19. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/noticias-c6623bd2cb7f4dfac6fb7160fd5e9a73.

————. (2021, September 16). Bitcoin protests in El Salvador against cryptocurrency as legal tender. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-58579415

————. (2021, October 2). Protecting Women and Children in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala. Borgen Magazine. https://www.borgenmagazine.com/protecting-women-and-children/.

————. (2021, September 28). Los feminicidios se elevaron un 15.5% en El Salvador entre enero y agosto. Forbes Centroamérica. https://forbescentroamerica.com/2021/09/28/los-feminicidios-se-elevaron-un-15-5-en-el-salvador-entre-enero-y-agosto/.

————. (2021, October 7). Fiscalía salvadoreña crea unidad especializada para atender a mujeres y niñez. Forbes Centroamérica. https://forbescentroamerica.com/2021/10/07/fiscalia-salvadorena-crea-unidad-especializada-para-atender-a-mujeres-y-ninez/

Ramos, P. (2021, September 23). The Crisis of COVID-19 Misinformation in Spanish-Language Media. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com/article/spanish-language-covid-misinformation.

Maldonado, C. (2021, September 17). Bukele excluye al aborto y el matrimonio igualitario de su propuesta de reforma a la Constitución. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2021-09-18/bukele-excluye-al-aborto-y-el-matrimonio-igualitario-de-su-propuesta-de-reforma-a-la-constitucion.html.

Martinez, A. (2021, September 29). Women across Latin America march in favor of abortion rights. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/el-salvador-women-march-against-abortion-laws-amid-planned-latin-america-wide-2021-09-28/

————. (2021, November 04). Rights group raíces alarm over threat to women in El Salvador. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/rights-group-raises-alarm-over-threat-women-el-salvador-2021-11-04/.

————. (2021, October 1). Third Committee Delegates Call for Solidarity in Tackling Fallout from COVID-19, Denounce Unequal Vaccine Access, Heavy Toll on Vulnerable Communities. United Nations Press Briefings. https://www.un.org/press/en/2021/gashc4316.doc.htm