FALL 2021

Governance and the Rule of Law

**Pro-Bolsonaro activists in Brasília.**

“_MG_0152” by alessandro dias is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Brazil’s vaccination campaign has been largely successful, resulting in a significant decrease in COVID-19 cases and deaths. Tensions between President Bolsonaro, health authorities and the courts have continued, most recently in regards to vaccination requirements and continued misinformation regarding COVID-19. A Senate inquiry in October accused President Bolsonaro and his policies for being responsible for more than half of the country’s COVID-19 deaths.

Brazil’s vaccination campaign continues to progress, as 77% of Brazilians have received one dose and 65% of the population is fully vaccinated. Booster doses are available to anyone over the age of 18. The city of Sāo Paulo has reached a milestone, announcing that it has fully vaccinated all adults. The city will thus serve as a real-world case study of the effectiveness of vaccines against the Omicron variant in an urban environment.
The country’s vaccine campaign has been largely successful despite facing numerous challenges including initially low vaccine supplies, government corruption regarding the procurement of vaccines and continued anti-vaccination language from President Jair Bolsonaro. He continues to maintain that he will not get vaccinated, creating concern that Bolsonaro’s actions and rhetoric will generate long-term anti-vaccination sentiment in a country that has historically been very supportive of vaccines and has one of the best global immunization programs.
Brazil is in the process of approving and defining protocols for the vaccination of children. Currently only children ages 12 and older may be vaccinated. Pfizer applied for approval in November for children ages 5 to 11 and Sinovac has applied twice for approval for ages 3 to 17. Brazil’s regulatory agency, Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (Anvisa), has requested additional information regarding Sinovac that should be available in January 2022.
Brazil hit a solemn marker in early October 2021, as it has registered over 600,000 COVID-related deaths, placing it second only to the United States. Due to the increase in vaccination, the country’s death rate has decreased to the lowest levels since April 2020. However, the Omicron variant and President Bolsonaro’s opposition to health mandates may undo the progress the country has made in containing the virus.
In response to the Omicron variant, Brazil has closed its borders to several Southern African nations. Additionally, a Supreme Court judge recently ruled that the government’ proposal of a mandatory quarantine for travelers poses a risk to Brazilians’ health, and the country must require tourists to show proof of vaccination in order to enter. It is not clear when this change will take place, but it comes after health officials expressed their concern that Brazil would become a haven for unvaccinated tourists.
The app Conecte SUS provides Brazilians with a digital proof of vaccination, which is now required in over 240 cities in order to enter commercial establishments and participate in certain activities. Municipal and state governments in Brazil have the authority to establish their own health measures to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which has led to tension with President Bolsonaro. He has proposed presenting a Provisional Measure to Congress which proposes that only the federal government can establish mandatory vaccination.
The Ministry of Health’s website was hacked on December 10th, impacting several systems including those which provide proof of vaccination and reporting on Brazil’s COVID-19 cases and deaths. Within several days the Ministry reported it had recovered all missing information and that the hackers did not access confidential data.
A Senate Inquiry Commission that began in April to investigate the government’s management of the pandemic has recommended that President Bolsonaro be charged with crimes against humanity, stating that he is responsible for more than half of the country’s over 600,000 COVID-19 deaths. Among the accusations in the report are that President Bolsonaro promoted ineffective remedies for COVID-19; allowed the coronavirus to intentionally run through the country in an attempt to create herd immunity and protect Brazil’s economy; and that he deliberately and consciously chose to delay the purchase of COVID-19 vaccines. The final Commission report was approved in a vote on October 26th, recommending that the president be investigated and charged along with 77 other individuals involved in the government’s response to the pandemic.
It remains unlikely that Bolsonaro will face charges or be impeached as a result of the Commission because the Attorney General and key members in Congress remain his allies. However, the investigation does have the potential to impact the October 2022 presidential elections; President Bolsonaro was registering all-time low approval ratings prior to the release of the report due to rising inflation and his response to the pandemic. Although former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva has not officially announced he is running, he is the likely candidate from the left. Polls currently show him easily beating Bolsonaro.
COVID-19 has had a great impact on Brazil’s democracy, as the country has become even more polarized under the leadership of President Bolsonaro and his mismanagement of the pandemic. There are concerns that there will not be an orderly transfer of power in 2022, as President Bolsonaro has utilized anti-democratic discourse, attacked institutions including the electoral system and Supreme Court and has maintained a close association with the armed forces.
Misinformation is threatening Brazilian democracy, as social media companies, the courts and President Bolsonaro face off regarding the regulation of fake news without stifling free speech. President Bolsonaro has used social media to spread misinformation throughout the pandemic and to sew doubts regarding the country’s electoral system. The Supreme Court has ordered an investigation into an October video from President Bolsonaro in which he falsely claimed COVID-19 vaccines are linked to an increased risk of contracting HIV.

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Growth and Innovation

**Demonstrators protesting against economic inequality at the Congresso Nacional.**

“Congresso Nacional. Brasília/DF. Brasil” by enagumo is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

According to an evaluation by the International Monetary Fund, Brazil’s economy returned to pre-pandemic levels during the first quarter of 2021, and is expected to experience 5.3% in real GDP growth in 2021. However, the Brazilian government still faces the challenge of addressing high levels of unemployment and rising inflation, while attempting to boost economic productivity and strengthening the social safety net to offset the effects of COVID-19 on the economy.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) released a positive evaluation in September, during which it declared Brazil’s economy returned to pre-pandemic levels during the first quarter of 2021, and projected real GDP would grow by 5.3% in 2021. The evaluation commended Brazil’s economic policy response to COVID- 19, but also recognized that COVID-19 has exacerbated existing challenges to economic growth and socioeconomic inclusion. Now, the country is experiencing a technical recession, with a 0.1% contraction of GDP during the second quarter after which economic growth stagnated, primarily driven by a 8% drop in agriculture. According to the IMF, future policy should focus on increasing labor productivity and private sector-led growth, strengthening the social safety net, and addressing rising inflation.
Like countries across the region who are struggling to bring down inflation, the Banco Central do Brasil (BCB) continues to raise interest rates. In October, the BCB raised the interest rate to 7.75% and it is expected that the rate will be raised to 9.25% by the end of 2021. Economists expect the economy to grow by approximately 4.5% to 4.8% by the end of 2021. Meanwhile, the negative effects of the Omicron variant on the economy combined with rising commodity prices, unemployment (currently at 12%) and inflation (10.7%) threaten vulnerable sectors of the population the most, as the price of essential goods and services continue to increase.
President Bolsonaro has suggested privatizing the state-run oil company Petrobras in an effort to deal with the political fallout of the rising fuel prices that has led to discontent among Brazilians. Despite the backlash, Petrobras has declared it will maintain its current pricing policy, which sets domestic fuel prices according to prices in the international market, independent of any government influence. The Minister of the Economy, Paulo Guedes, recently stated his support for privatizing Petrobras, suggesting that revenue from the sale could be used to reduce poverty.
During the first week of December, the Senate approved a constitutional amendment to ease the budget spending cap. This amendment will allow the government to spend an additional R$ 106.1 billion in 2022, which will allow Bolsonaro to keep his promise of increasing welfare spending by funding the newly created program Auxilio Brasil. It is estimated that this new program intended to reach 17 million families will cost R$ 85 billion per year.
Although opposition senators recognize the importance of providing assistance especially given the disproportionate effect COVID-19 has had on certain sectors of the Brazilian population, many criticize the boost in social spending as an effort by Bolsonaro to bolster his popularity ahead of next year’s presidential elections. Additionally, investors are concerned the move will fuel already high inflation and increase debt.

Bolsonaro has issued a Provisional Measure that allows for adjustments in foreign trade law. This measure is intended to boost international competitiveness for Brazilian export companies who have been affected by the decrease in trade due to COVID-19. The Provisional Measure extends the criteria for the exemption, reduction or suspension of taxes for those utilizing special drawback schemes.
Brazil was ranked by the World Bank as the seventh highest country in the GovTech Maturity Index, ranking higher than the rest of Latin America, the United States and Canada. The index evaluates different areas of digital transformation in the public sector including public service delivery, citizen engagement, enablers and core government systems. Brazil ranks high in the last two categories due to their commitment to developing the gov.br website, which played a crucial role during COVID-19 by providing access to digital public services.
On September 21st, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) announced its selection of Argentina and Brazil as hubs for the production and development of mRNA-based vaccines. In Brazil, the Bio-Manguinhos Institute of Technology on Immunobiologicals at the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (FIOCRUZ) was selected due to its previous work on vaccine development. As part of the proposal presented to PAHO, Bio-Manguinhos made a commitment to share their expertise with other labs across the region to increase the overall productive capacity of the region.
PAHO will provide Bio-Manguinhos with access to international experts with varying experiences on the development and production of vaccines. In October, FIOCRUZ received five batches of active pharmaceutical ingredients which will allow for the production of 27.2 million doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine, in addition there are already 15.3 million doses in quality control at Bio-Manguinhos. PAHO member states and territories will have access to the vaccine through PAHO’s Revolving Fund.
In August 2021, Pfizer-BioNTech announced they signed an agreement with the Brazilian biopharmaceutical company Eurofarma Laboratórios SA to produce the COVID-19 COMIRNATY vaccine. The installation of equipment, transfer of vaccine technology and on-site development of the mRNA vaccine will begin immediately, and Pfizer expects that more than 100 million doses will be produced per year beginning in 2022.
The Brazilian cruise season began on November 5, and it is expected that the country will receive 107 itineraries and 392 stopovers during the summer season. It is expected that the return of cruise ships between the months of November 2021 to April 2022 will surpass pre COVID-19 figures, generating approximately 24,000 jobs, and injecting around R$ 1.7 billion into the economy. The sanitary protocol outlined by the National Health Surveillance Agency (ANVISA) requires mandatory vaccination of passengers and crew members (provided they are eligible for vaccination), the mandatory use of masks on board, daily testing of at least 10% of crewmembers and 10% of passengers, social distancing of 1.5 meters between groups of passengers and a maximum occupancy of 75% for every vessel.
According to the data collected by the General registry of the Employed and Unemployed (CAGED) and published by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security, more than 2.6 million formal jobs have been created since the beginning of 2021. The month of October registered a total of 253,083 new jobs with formal contracts across 5 sectors and all 5 regions. The greatest number of new jobs in October was registered in the service sector, indicating the importance of the service and tourism sectors especially now that the summer season has started.

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Social and Cultural Inclusion

**Rocinha, the largest favela in Brazil.**

“Rocinha Favela Tour” by Daytours4u is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

COVID-19 has aggravated pre-existing socioeconomic, regional and racial disparities in Brazilian society. The government has responded with social welfare programs, but their management of the pandemic has been criticized for exacerbating negative impacts especially among the LGBTQ community, women and people of color. In particular, some have called for President Bolsonaro to be charged with genocide of the indigenous populations in the recent Senate inquiry into the government’s response to COVID-19.

On November 8th, Auxilio Brasil replaced Bolsa Familia and other health, educational, employment and income programs. Auxilio Brasil is meant to expand benefits from Bolsa Familia by including more families living in poverty as well as providing benefits for pregnant women and families living with children up to age 21. The new program aims to make the process of receiving benefits more transparent than it was under the previous Bolsa Familia program, though many believe President Bolsonaro has introduced this plan in an attempt to bolster his floundering popularity going into the 2022 elections.
The government also approved the Alimenta Brasil program which replaces the program Aquisição de Alimentos (PAA). Alimeta Brasil intends to help family farmers by encouraging production by rural farmers as well as promoting access to food for vulnerable families. Both programs, Auxilio Brasil and Alimenta Brasil, will provide families across the country with the needed economic and nutrition assistance as the country begins to shift to post-COVID-19 conditions.
COVID-19 has deepened the food insecurity of millions of Brazilians, creating what experts are calling an epidemic of hunger in the country. 19 million Brazilians currently suffer from food insecurity. This situation is not equitably distributed amongst the Brazilian population, as it primarily affects black and brown households headed by women in the North and Northeast of Brazil. The country’s prolonged drought, the pandemic, and the rise in inflation have all contributed to this situation.
The return to in-person classes has divided education experts, parents, and politicians in Brazil. Some feel that it is not safe to return to classes due to Brazil’s incomplete vaccination scheme and the lack of social distancing, while others point to the disproportionate impact remote learning has had on low-income students. Rio de Janeiro, Sāo Paulo, the Federal District and many other states have mandated the return to in person classes, while some continue with hybrid classes.
COVID-19 and the suspension of in person classes has affected children of all ages. Children aged 6 and under have been deprived of stimuli that help develop crucial neurological structures, hindering the vital development of cognitive, motor, social and language skills within the first 6 years of childhood. Children and adolescents have faced challenges to their mental health, social development and relational skills. COVID-19 has also created additional challenges for children with learning and physical disabilities.
President Bolsonaro has vetoed a plan to distribute free menstrual products to girls and women in situations of social vulnerability, as the government claims that they cannot afford to pay for both vaccines and sanitary products. This measure, which Congress may vote to uphold, would have been one way to account for worsening social inequality caused by COVID-19 and foster school attendance, as one in four girls is estimated to miss school because they cannot afford sanitary products.
Following a trend throughout Latin America, the pandemic has exacerbated men’s violence against women, as Brazil recorded one incidence per minute in 2020. This trend is due to multiple factors including the increased time women spent in the domestic environment with men, women’s difficulty accessing services, and women’s increased economic vulnerability and unemployment. Black women are disproportionately affected, composing 61.8% of all cases, demonstrating the need for policies and services to address the intersection of race, class and gender.
Black transgender women are especially vulnerable, accounting for ⅔ of the murders of trans women reported in 2020. Brazil is the global leader in the murder of trans women, and this number increased by 45% during the pandemic. Activists point to President Bolsonaro’s racist, homophobic and transphobic rhetoric as well as the fact that spaces for accessing protection services, such as police stations, are not safe spaces for the LGBTQI community.
The pandemic’s impact on the economy has particularly affected the poorest populations, among which people of color are disproportionately represented. Additionally, the pandemic has reversed progress made in the Brazilian labor market regarding gender inequality. Women have left the workforce at a higher rate than men due to increased care duties and the contraction of sectors that employ large numbers of women such as tourism, education and public and domestic services.
The Senate Inquiry Comission originally called for charging President Bolsonaro with mass murder and genocide of the indigenous population of Brazil, but leaders ultimately chose not to move forward with this recommendation. The indigenous communities of Brazil have been particularly impacted by the pandemic due to social isolation, lack of adequate health systems and land invasion. The Commission’s report accuses the government of not creating an adequate plan to address these vulnerabilities and that their actions deliberately went against the rights of indigenous people.
One specific example of the government’s alleged negligence relates to increased land disputes and invasions during the pandemic, which resulted in a 60% increase of the murder of indigenous peoples in 2020. Critics say the government failed to provide protection for indigenous groups and pushed forward legislation that opens up indigenous lands to commercial extractive activities. These actions have emboldened illegal miners and loggers to invade indigenous territories, commit acts of violence and cause the virus to spread.
Vaccinating indigenous communities has also proved challenging due to the logistical difficulties of reaching them, their distrust of the government and the spread of misinformation fomented by religious organizations. The Brazilian constitution upholds the rights of indigenous communities to voluntary isolation, and as a result some indigenous groups are filing a lawsuit against missionaries for unwanted and illegal advances in their territories which placed indigenous communities at risk during the pandemic.

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SPRING 2021

Governance and the Rule of Law

In 2021, the Brazilian government is facing the worst scenario since the pandemic started. The country is suffering a third COVID-19 wave caused by a more lethal variant of the virus, which has raised the death toll and has put the ICUs under stress. Consequently, Brazil’s Supreme Court opened an investigation due to the government’s handling of the pandemic that has killed more than 430,000 people. The Bolsonaro government is under pressure to accelerate and prioritize vaccination and to control transmission with the incorporation of stricter measures even though the government has been accused of promoting quack cures, declared against lockdowns, and tried to derail the publication of data.

The federal government’s inefficiency in tackling the pandemic has led to a failure to coordinate, promote, and finance internationally sanctioned public health measures, presenting a threat to governance taking into account next year elections.
Brazil’s Supreme Court, was opened late last month to investigate the government’s handling of the pandemic that has killed more than 430,000 people. This could represent a decisive element of next year’s election.
The surge in death tolls due to a new variant of the virus and the mismanagement of the pandemic has pushed the government to the creation of a new crisis committee that includes state officials who have been outspoken against the federal government.
Brazil is facing an institutional crisis that has challenged the effective response to the second wave of infection. Within a year the Bolsonaro government has appointed three different health ministers causing instability in one of the key ministries.
The reopening of at least 15 public state network schools presents serious concerns for the education professionals in the midst of a third wave of contagious and unclear response from the government.
The slow response to the new COVID-19 variant on Brazil’s border is frustrating neighboring countries due to the lack of measures to stop the spread in those areas.
States are running low on supplies while more than 85% of ICU’s beds are occupied, pressuring the federal government for a larger leadership and coordination of efforts between the federal and state governments.
In the last months, several cases of wealthy Brazilian individuals trying to score quick vaccines have arisen, making inequality more obvious and highlighting the rampant corruption within society and government officials. This undermines trust in the institutions during the crisis.
Additionally, there is increasing evidence of chronic corruption with the funneling of federal and state funds to preferred bidders for contracts for medical equipment, many of which have failed to meet the terms of their contracts.
Differing approaches to the management of COVID-19 taken by federal and state governments have tested Brazil’s federal model. This has set up public battles between governors and the president, initially over stay-at-home orders, later over the speed of reopening the economy, and now on the vaccination rollout.
The federal government has clashed with the judiciary on several occasions, causing the latter to require the former to reverse course on actions considered illegal — such as the Ministry of Health’s attempt to cease publishing coronavirus data.
The federal government attempted to use COVID-19 as a pretext to illegally acquire the personal data of over 200 million Brazilians, sparking concerns that the pandemic may accelerate a transition to what some have called ‘techno-authoritarianism’.
Indigenous groups have accused the government of improper execution of quarantine procedures, leading to federal health workers spreading the virus to isolated peoples.
COVID-19 has exposed deficiencies in Brazil’s public healthcare system (Sistema Único de Saúde, SUS). The SUS has less than half the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended number of beds, and only 10% of municipalities have an ICU.

Growth and Innovation

With a 4.3% reduction in Brazilian GDP in 2020, the third wave of the pandemic has sent Brazil’s already fragile economy into a sharper recession, costing at least 12 million jobs. The government faces the challenge in 2021 of balancing stimulus and income support packages with its reform program and desire to rein in public expenditure.

Brazil is developing two vaccines that are in the human trials stage. This presents an opportunity to subdue the pandemic that has escalated to critical death tolls.
The pandemic has put Brazil on the path to a historic economic downturn. Brazil’s GDP fell 4.3% by 2020. Though broadly in line with post-crisis expectations, this was still the steepest GDP drop in the country’s history.
Brazil entered the crisis from a position of economic precarity following years of sluggish growth resulting from the 2015/16 economic crisis, with the real under pressure from weak economic growth and falling interest rates. As a result, Brazil had already experienced rising inequality prior to the pandemic’s arrival.
The government’s economic response is partially constrained by a 2016 constitutional amendment imposing a legally-mandated cap on public spending; this has been described by the United Nations as a violation of human rights standards.
More than 12 million Brazilians have lost their jobs since the beginning of the pandemic, including at least 5.8 million in the informal sector (which accounts for 40% of Brazil’s workers). Less than half of the working age population is currently employed.
The federal government has extended the monthly unemployment subsidy until 2021, but at a reduced monthly rate of 300 reais—less than a third of the minimum wage. It has also used a loan from the World Bank to scale up the Bolsa Familia conditional cash transfer program.
As a result of the government’s emergency aid programs, millions of informal workers have opened digital savings accounts for the first time, boosting the Central Bank’s drive to digitize the economy and create greater financial inclusion for the informal sector.
For 2021, the federal government has expanded the emergency aid program for four months, resulting in more support to a vulnerable population affected by the pandemic.
Service sector activity (representing 70% of the Brazilian economy) has contracted sharply, creating a need for people to return to work and an impetus for mayors to reopen cities as quickly as possible, despite sustained transmission of the virus.
Brazil’s sustained community transmission has had the unintended side effect of turning the country into a key testing site for several potential vaccine trials, aided by the country’s strong scientific community and manufacturing capacity—though the choice of which vaccines to test has become increasingly politicized.
The pandemic is widening the country’s educational inequality gap. Students from poor backgrounds have suffered disproportionately from a lack of online educational materials, and there is little standardization in the timing of any return to in-person education from state to state. The vast majority of students are doing fewer hours of online education per day than the legal minimum.
A post-pandemic world could present new economic challenges for Brazilian industry, if companies choose to make their supply chains more resistant to disruption through greater automation and reshoring.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

A deadlier third wave is aggravating pre-existing socioeconomic, regional, and racial disparities in Brazilian society. Civil society organizations are stepping in to aid those most affected by the virus including indigenous people, Black Brazilians, women, and refugees.

About 19 million Brazilians have gone hungry over the past year. Scenes of people begging for food are stark evidence that President Jair Bolsonaro’s bet that he could protect the country’s economy by resisting public health policies intended to curb the virus has failed.
Given that pregnant and postpartum women are showing higher death rates from COVID-19, Brazilian officials have taken unusual steps of asking women to avoid getting pregnant.
The deficient internet connectivity is causing students in vulnerable socioeconomic situations to drop out of school. The government is addressing the problem through the program “Alunos Conectados” providing to different universities at the national level chips with access to the internet. This is working to stop the increase in drop outs from universities.
False information from politicians and preachers is reaching remote villages in the Amazon via WhatsApp. These misinformation bubbles through social media threaten indigenous people, causing a decrease in vaccination rates of this population.
The education professionals union are calling for strikes against the reopening of schools. However, low socioeconomic students are facing the challenges of distance learning due to lack of connectivity and equipment.

Brazil has already administered the vaccine to more than 16.7 million people. However, Brazil’s mayors and governors started sounding the alarm over dwindling supplies of coronavirus vaccines since immunizations began on January 18. Just 6.32% of Brazil’s 13.8 million citizens have received the first shot.
COVID-19 has begun to resurge in rural areas, posing a particular risk to Brazil’s indigenous population, including indigenous Venezuelan refugees. Many of these communities have already suffered displacement and been exposed to the virus by the federal agents sent to assist them.
The spread of a deadlier variant of the virus through Brazil’s indigenous communities threatens to wipe out decades of oral history and even entire cultures, as indigenous elders, often the keepers of indigenous languages, succumb to COVID-19.
The Brazilian government has been accused of not keeping an accurate count of positive cases among indigenous people, which has led the indigenous organization APIB to monitor the numbers on their own account.
The combination of rapidly escalating gold prices and high unemployment caused by the pandemic has led to a marked increase in illegal gold mining, much of it on indigenous land, presenting a new challenge of intrusion to a vulnerable community.
Deaths from the virus largely occur among Black and Brown Brazilians, who disproportionately work in the informal economy and lack access to healthcare. COVID-19 has been linked with a significant increase in maternal mortality for Black women, at twice the rate of white women.
In the perceived absence of assistance from the government, civil society organizations such as Observatorio de Favelas, Odara, and Redes da Maré have taken on responsibility at a local level for the distribution of goods and public health information.
The president has attempted to scapegoat NGOs, civil society organizations and indigenous peoples for the setbacks suffered by Brazil over the course of the pandemic, placing these groups and organizations at risk in a politically divided country. He has also used homophobic language to denounce his citizens’ response to the virus.
Despite domestic violence calls to the state’s emergency hotline increasing by 45%, many social services for victims of domestic violence are limited and special precincts for women are running under reduced hours due to the pandemic.
Additionally, the female population is disproportionately suffering the pandemic’s consequences. According to some studies, women account for 85% of the nursing professionals in Brazil, increasing the number of women dying from the virus due to their exposure in overcrowded hospitals.
According to antibody research, coronavirus exposure has been highest amongst indigenous people (3.7%) and lowest among whites (0.6%). Conversely, a separate study has suggested a possible link between prior exposure to dengue and some immunity to COVID-19, a finding which, if true, would have significant implications for the indigenous population.

FALL 2020

Governance and the Rule of Law

Brazil’s response to COVID-19 has been marked by clashes among the federal government, state governments, and the scientific community. Though the country remains politically divided, President Bolsonaro’s handling of the crisis has earned him the highest approval ratings of his presidency on the eve of key municipal elections.

As Brazil’s case numbers once again begin to rise, President Bolsonaro has cast himself as an ally of the working class. Polling suggests that he has mostly avoided blame for the severity of the pandemic, which has killed over 160,000 people in Brazil.
Brazilians are going to the polls for municipal elections, which have acted as an incentive for mayors to prematurely reopen their cities. The polarized political environment, worsened by the virus, has led to a historic increase in violence and threats against candidates for municipal office.
The relationship between Bolsonaro and the scientific community has grown increasingly tense, with the president frequently intervening to block scientific interventions on political grounds. This includes a recent attempt to block further testing of the Chinese Sinovac vaccine, despite objections from scientific officials.
Differing approaches to the management of COVID-19 taken by federal and state governments have tested Brazil’s federal model. This has set up public battles between governors and the president, initially over stay-at-home orders and later over the speed of reopening the economy.
The federal government has clashed with the judiciary on several occasions, causing the latter to require the former to reverse course on actions considered illegal — such as the Ministry of Health’s attempt to cease publishing coronavirus data.
There is increasing evidence of chronic corruption which may have funneled federal and state funds to preferred bidders for contracts for medical equipment, many of which have failed to meet the terms of their contracts.
The federal government attempted to use COVID-19 as a pretext to illegally acquire the personal data of over 200 million Brazilians, sparking concerns that the pandemic may accelerate a transition to what some have called ‘techno-authoritarianism’.
Indigenous groups have accused the government of improper execution of quarantine procedures, leading to federal health workers spreading the virus to isolated peoples.
Police brutality increased by up to 43% following the imposition of stay-at-home orders, disproportionately targeting Black men, despite a Supreme Court order intended to halt police raids in favelas for the duration of the pandemic.
COVID-19 has exposed deficiencies in Brazil’s public healthcare system (Sistema Único de Saúde, SUS). The SUS has less than half the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended number of beds, and only 10% of municipalities have an ICU.

Growth and Innovation

The pandemic sent Brazil’s already fragile economy into a sharp recession, costing at least 12 million jobs. The government faces the challenge of balancing stimulus and income support packages with its reform program and desire to rein in public expenditure.

The pandemic has put Brazil on the path to a historic economic downturn. Brazil’s GDP fell by 9.7% in the second quarter of 2020. Though broadly in line with post-crisis expectations, this was still the steepest GDP drop in the country’s history.
Brazil entered the crisis from a position of economic precarity following years of sluggish growth resulting from the 2015/16 economic crisis, with the real under pressure from weak economic growth and falling interest rates. As a result, Brazil had already experienced rising inequality prior to the pandemic’s arrival.
The government’s economic response is partially constrained by a 2016 constitutional amendment imposing a legally-mandated cap on public spending; this has been described by the United Nations as a violation of human rights standards.
More than 12 million Brazilians have lost their jobs since the beginning of the pandemic, including at least 5.8 million in the informal sector (which accounts for 40% of Brazil’s workers). Less than half of the working age population is currently employed.
The federal government has extended the monthly unemployment subsidy until 2021, but at a reduced monthly rate of 300 reais—less than a third of the minimum wage. It has also used a loan from the World Bank to scale up the ‘Bolsa Familia’ conditional cash transfer program.
As a result of the government’s emergency aid programs, millions of informal workers have opened digital savings accounts for the first time, boosting the Central Bank’s drive to digitize the economy and create greater financial inclusion for the informal sector.
Service sector activity (representing 70% of the Brazilian economy) has contracted sharply, creating a need for people to return to work and an impetus for mayors to reopen cities as quickly as possible, despite sustained transmission of the virus.
Brazil’s sustained community transmission has had the unintended side effect of turning the country into a key testing site for several potential vaccine trials, aided by the country’s strong scientific community and manufacturing capacity—though the choice of which vaccines to test has become increasingly politicized.
The pandemic is widening the country’s educational inequality gap. Students from poor backgrounds have suffered disproportionately from a lack of online educational materials, and there is little standardization in the timing of any return to in-person education from state to state. The vast majority of students are doing fewer hours of online education per day than the legal minimum.
A post-pandemic world could present new economic challenges for Brazilian industry, if companies choose to make their supply chains more resistant to disruption through greater automation and reshoring.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

The fallout from the epidemic has aggravated pre-existing socioeconomic, regional, and racial disparities in Brazilian society. Civil society organizations are stepping in to aid those most affected by the virus including indigenous people, Black Brazilians, women, and refugees.

COVID-19 has begun to resurge in rural areas, posing a particular risk to Brazil’s indigenous population, including indigenous Venezuelan refugees). Many of these communities have already suffered displacement and been exposed to the virus by the federal agents sent to assist them.
The spread of the pandemic through Brazil’s indigenous communities threatens to wipe out decades of oral history and even entire cultures, as indigenous elders, often the keepers of indigenous languages, succumb to COVID-19.
The Brazilian government has been accused of not keeping an accurate count of positive cases among indigenous people, which has led the indigenous organization APIB to monitor the numbers on their own account.
The samba schools of Rio de Janeiro have indefinitely postponed the 2021 Carnival (previously scheduled for February), a major setback both for the cultural life of Brazil and for the beleaguered tourist industry.
The combination of rapidly escalating gold prices and high unemployment caused by the pandemic has led to a marked increase in illegal gold mining, much of it on indigenous land, presenting a new challenge of intrusion to a vulnerable community.
Deaths from the virus largely occur among Black and Brown Brazilians, who disproportionately work in the informal economy and lack access to healthcare. COVID-19 has been linked with a significant increase in maternal mortality for Black women, at twice the rate of white women.

In the perceived absence of assistance from the government, civil society organizations such as Observatorio de Favelas, Odara, and Redes da Maré have taken on responsibility at a local level for the distribution of goods and public health information.
The president has attempted to scapegoat NGOs, civil society organizations and indigenous peoples for the setbacks suffered by Brazil over the course of the pandemic, placing these groups and organizations at risk in a politically divided country. He has also used homophobic language to denounce his citizens’ response to the virus.
Despite domestic violence calls to the state’s emergency hotline increasing by 45%, many social services for victims of domestic violence are limited and special precincts for women are running under reduced hours due to the pandemic.
According to antibody research, coronavirus exposure has been highest amongst indigenous people (3.7%) and lowest among whites (0.6%). Conversely, a separate study has suggested a possible link between prior exposure to dengue and some immunity to COVID-19, a finding which, if true, would have significant implications for the indigenous population.

SUMMER 2020

Governance and the Rule of Law

Brazil’s pandemic response has been marked by clashes between federal and state governments, politicization of the virus, and extreme pressure on the public healthcare system. The crisis has tested President Bolsonaro’s authority and threatens to leave Brazil historically divided.

Bolsonaro has been accused of underestimating the virus and disregarding scientific advice, replacing ministers and effectively weakening the federal Ministry of Health.
COVID-19 has tested federal structures, with Bolsonaro denouncing state governors for instituting lockdowns as he is powerless to reverse them himself.
Conflict has also occurred within the federal level as Bolsonaro has used presidential vetoes to undercut congressional initiatives, such as a mandatory mask law.
The pandemic has generated conflict between the federal government and the judiciary, on issues ranging from the publication of data to proposed anti-stay-at-home adverts.
The prospect of municipal elections in October 2020 has acted as an incentive for mayors to reopen prematurely in cities across Brazil.
The perceived absence of the federal government has led local communities to take pandemic management into their own hands, especially in the country’s favelas.
Lockdown enforcement was followed by an up to 43% increase in police brutality, disproportionately targeting black men and hampering humanitarian missions.
COVID-19 has exposed deficiencies in Brazil’s public healthcare system (SUS). The SUS has less than half the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended number of beds, and only 10% of municipalities have an ICU.
Regional and socio-economic disparities, along with unequal distribution of medical equipment and resources, threaten to worsen the public health crisis in Brazil.
Indigenous groups have accused the government of improper execution of quarantine procedures, leading to federal health workers spreading the virus to isolated peoples.

Growth and Innovation

The pandemic has particularly struck the country’s vast informal sector. Moreover, the enduring legacy of a 2016 constitutional amendment imposing a public spending cap narrows the government’s options both for emergency stimulus measures and for its broader path forward.

The pandemic has put Brazil on the path to a historic economic downturn. The World Bank estimates that the economy could shrink by as much as 8% in 2020.
The government’s response is constrained by a 2016 constitutional amendment capping public spending; this has been described by the United Nations as a violation of human rights standards.
Brazil entered the crisis from a position of economic precarity, with the real under pressure from weak economic growth and falling interest rates.
7.8 million Brazilians lost their jobs in the first trimester of 2020, including 5.8 million in the informal sector. Less than half of the working age population is currently employed .
The federal government announced a plethora of economic stimulus measures, though as little as a quarter of the measures announced constitute ‘new money’.
Many Brazilians have no savings, and the 600 real monthly basic income is less than half the minimum wage, compounding economic difficulties faced by Brazil’s poor.
40% of Brazil’s workers are in the informal sector, and 5.8 million have lost their jobs. Doubts linger over the government’s capacity to reach this group through financial aid.
Service sector activity (representing 70% of the Brazilian economy) has also contracted sharply, creating an urge for people to return to work.
The combination of limited distance-learning measures in poor areas and the postponement of the college entry exam could disadvantage a generation of poorer students.
Grassroots and community-based organizations have emerged as a result of underfunded public services, signaling a shift away from reliance on state services.

Social and Cultural Inclusion

The pandemic has emphasized already existing socioeconomic, regional, and racial disparities in Brazilian society. Civil society organizations are stepping in to aid those most affected by the virus including indigenous people, Black Brazilians, women, and refugees.

The pandemic has highlighted private versus public health disparities in Brazil. 67% of public health system users identify as Black.
Public hospitals in 17 of the 27 states fail to meet the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 1 ICU bed per 100,000 people, while private hospitals boast a national average of 4.08 beds per 100,000 people.
The Brazilian government has been accused of not keeping an accurate count of positive cases among indigenous people, which has led the indigenous organization APIB to monitor the numbers on their own account.
Deaths from the virus largely occur among Black and Brown Brazilians, as they are vulnerable given their predominance in the informal economy and lack of access to adequate healthcare.
Civil society organizations like Observatorio de Favelas, Odara, and Redes da Maré, have stepped up to distribute goods, spread information, and denounce the government where it is perceived to be absent.
Protests, influenced by those occurring in the United States over inequality, have emerged in multiple cities against President Bolsonaro and his handling of the pandemic.
Migrants and refugees are at risk of losing their livelihoods as they rely on Brazil’s public social system that is increasingly strained.
Indigenous Venezuelan refugees in Brazil are in doubly precarious circumstances as displaced indigenous communities are dangerously exposed as they struggle to find shelter.
Despite domestic violence calls to the state’s emergency hotline increasing by 45%, many social services for victims of domestic violence are limited and special precincts for women are running under reduced hours due to the pandemic.
According to a study conducted by Brazilian researchers based on Sars-CoV-2 antibodies, coronavirus exposure has been highest amongst indigenous people (3.7%) and lowest among whites (0.6%).

Select resources for Brazil:

Governance and the Rule of Law Fall 2021:

Al Jazeera. (2021, 30 de novembro). Brazil’s Bolsonaro officially joins centre-right Liberal Party. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/11/30/brazil-bolsonaro-officially-joins-centre-right-liberal-party.

Arbex, T. (2021, 3 de dezembro). Bolsonaro vira alvo de inquérito no STF por ligar vacina contra Covid à Aids. CNN Brasil. https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/politica/bolsonaro-vira-alvo-de-inquerito-no-stf-por-ligar-vacina-contra-covid-a-aids/.
Berger, M. (2021, December 12). Foreign travelers to Brazil must be vaccinated, high court rules in challenge to unvaccinated Bolsonaro. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/12/12/brazil-travel-coronavirus-vaccine-bolsonaro/

DW. (2021, 13 de dezembro). Ministério da Saúde diz que recuperou registros de vacinação. Brasil de Fato. https://www.brasildefato.com.br/2021/12/13/ministerio-da-saude-diz-que-recuperou-registros-de-vacinacao.

Ferreira, V. (2021, 7 de dezembro). Novo pedido de registro da CoronaVac à Anvisa deve ser feito em janeiro de 2022; liberação da vacina para crianças depende disso, diz Dimas. GloboNews. https://g1.globo.com/sp/sao-paulo/noticia/2021/12/07/novo-pedido-de-registro-da-coronavac-a-anvisa-deve-ser-feito-em-janeiro-de-2022-liberacao-da-vacina-para-criancas-depende-disso-diz-dimas.ghtml

G1. (2021, 5 de dezembro). Brasil tem média móvel de 194 mortes diárias por Covid, a menor desde abril de 2020. https://g1.globo.com/saude/coronavirus/noticia/2021/12/05/brasil-tem-media-movel-de-194-mortes-diarias-por-covid.ghtml

Mattos, M., Barbiéri, L. F., Resende, S., & Garcia, G. (2021, 26 de outubro). CPI da Covid aprova relatório final, atribui nove crimes a Bolsonaro e pede 80 indiciamentos. G1. https://g1.globo.com/politica/cpi-da-covid/noticia/2021/10/26/cpi-da-covid-aprova-relatorio-atribui-nove-crimes-a-bolsonaro-e-pede-80-indiciamentos.ghtml.

Ministério da Saúde. (2021, 24 de novembro). Anvisa faz recomendações sobre doses de reforço de vacinas contra Covid-19. https://www.gov.br/anvisa/pt-br/assuntos/noticias-anvisa/2021/anvisa-faz-recomendacoes-sobre-doses-de-reforco-de-vacinas-contra-covid-19.

————. (2021, 9 de dezembro). Vacinação contra a Covid-19 no Brasil—#PÁTRIAVACINADA. https://www.gov.br/saude/pt-br/vacinacao/.

Palau, M. (2021, October 19). A perigosa batalha contra a desinformação no Brasil. Americas Quarterly. https://americasquarterly.org/article/inside-brazils-dangerous-battle-over-fake-news/.

Prado, F. (2021, 12 de dezembro). Passaporte vacinal: Entenda as regras e como ter documentação sanitária. Istoé Dinheiro. https://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/passaporte-de-vacina-entenda-a-exigencia-e-como-deve-ser-ampliado/.

Rocha, R. (2021, 1 de outubro). Fiocruz defende o passaporte da vacina para todo o Brasil. CNN Brasil. https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/saude/fiocruz-defende-o-passaporte-da-vacina-para-todo-o-brasil/.

Rodrigues, L. (2021, 27 de outubro). Prefeitura do Rio libera uso de máscaras em lugares abertos. Agência Brasil. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/saude/noticia/2021-10/prefeitura-do-rio-libera-uso-de-mascaras-em-lugares-abertos.

Schreiber, M. (2021, 26 de outubro). CPI da Covid aprova relatório que pede indiciamento de Bolsonaro e outros 79; o que acontece agora. BBC News Brasil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-59057279.

Waldron, T. (2021, November 26). Bolsonaro Launched A Trumpian Anti-Vaccine Campaign. Brazilians Got The Shot Anyway. HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/bolsonaro-covid-vaccine-brazil_n_619c3cf9e4b0ae9a42a4fafd.

Growth and Innovation Fall 2021:

Agência Brasil. (2021, 20 de novembro). Caged: Brasil criou 253 mil vagas de emprego em outubro. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/economia/noticia/2021-11/caged-brasil-criou-253-mil-vagas-de-emp

Ayres, B. (2021, December 1). Brazil’s Guedes suggests privatizing oil firm Petrobras before it is ‘irrelevant’. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/brazils-guedes-suggests-privatizing-petrobras-before-it-becomes-irrelevant-2021-12-01/

Boadle, A. (2021, December 2). Brazil Senate OKs easing budget cap to fund welfare program. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/brazil-senate-oks-easing-budget-cap-fund-welfare-program-2021-12-02/?emci=bf2e8605-4354-ec11-94f6-0050f2e65e9b&emdi=de2afb2f-4454-ec11-94f6-0050f2e65e9b&ceid=4606001

Campos, A. (2021, 31 de outubro). Fiocruz recebe três lotes de IFA para vacina da covid-19. Agência Brasil. https://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/saude/noticia/2021-10/fiocruz-recebe-tres-lotes-de-ifa-para-vacina-da-covid-19

Dener, C., et al. (2021 September 15). GovTech Maturity Index: The State of Public Sector Digital Transformation. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36233.

Governo do Brasil. (2021, 30 de setembro). Brasil é reconhecido pelo Banco Mundial como o 7º líder em Governo Digital no mundo entre 198 países avaliados. https://www.gov.br/pt-br/noticias/financas-impostos-e-gestao-publica/2021/09/brasil-e-reconhecido-pelo-banco-mundial-como-o-7o-lider-em-governo-digital-no-mundo-entre-198-paises-avaliados.

————. (2021, 4 de novembro). “Esta temporada será um sucesso”, afirma ministro durante feira náutica em São Paulo. https://www.gov.br/turismo/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/201cesta-temporada-sera-um-sucesso201d-afirma-ministro-durante-feira-nautica-em-sao-paulo

————. (2021, 1 de dezembro). MP prorroga prazos de desoneração tributária na legislação de comércio exterior. https://www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-planalto/noticias/2021/12/mp-prorroga-prazos-de-desoneracao-tributaria-na-legislacao-de-comercio-exterior

Harris, B. (2021, December 2). Brazil enters recession as inflation grips economy. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/acd9b444-f085-4938-8f9c-d9d1057de9b7

IMF. (2021, September 23). Brazil: Sustaining a Strong Recovery. https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2021/09/22/na092221-brazil-sustaining-a-strong-recovery

PAHO. (2021, September 21). PAHO selects centers in Argentina, Brazil to develop COVID-19 mRNA vaccines. https://www.paho.org/en/news/21-9-2021-paho-selects-centers-argentina-brazil-develop-covid-19-mrna-vaccines.
Paraguassu, L., & Simões, E. (2021, November 10). Brazil’s Bolsonaro pressures lawmakers before key fiscal vote. Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/2021/11/10/us-brazil-politics.

Rosati, A. (2021, December 2). Brazil Slips Into Recession as Post-Pandemic Recovery Cut Short. Bloomberg. https://www.yahoo.com/now/brazil-economy-slips-recession-second-123147678.html

Salomon, G. (2021, 26 de agosto). Pfizer y BioNTech anuncian socio de vacuna en Brasil. https://apnews.com/article/noticias-237a169f7a9c13feb52ffad3cd3b5abe.

Simoes, E., et al. (2021, November 8). Brazil’s Bolsonaro says he wants to carve up Petrobras. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/brazils-bolsonaro-says-he-wants-carve-up-petrobras-2021-11-08/

Social and Cultural Inclusion Fall 2021:

Agência Senado. (2021, 25 de outubro). Volta às aulas presenciais ainda não é consenso, aponta debate. Senado Federal. https://www12.senado.leg.br/noticias/materias/2021/10/25/volta-as-aulas-presenciais-ainda-nao-e-consenso-aponta-debate.

Aguiar, C. (2021, 10 de novembro). Programa Alimenta Brasil beneficiará agricultura familiar e famílias em vulnerabilidade—Imprensa na Net. Imprensa na Net. https://www.imprensananet.com/noticias/porto-seguro/12695/programa-alimenta-brasil-beneficiara-agricultura-familiar-e-familias-em-vulnerabilidade-10-11-2021/.

Banastor, F. (2021, 16 de outubro). Brasil vive nova epidemia de fome. Negrê. https://negre.com.br/brasil-vive-nova-epidemia-de-fome/

Conselho Indigenista Missionário. (2021). Relatório: Violência Contra os Povos-Indígenas no Brasil Dados de 2020. https://cimi.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/relatorio-violencia-povos-indigenas-2020-cimi.pdf.

De Deus, J. (2021, 21 de outubro). Relatório da CPI acusa Bolsonaro de permitir mortes de indígenas em MT. Diario de Cuiabá. https://www.diariodecuiaba.com.br/cidades/relatorio-da-cpi-acusa-bolsonaro-de-permitir-mortes-de-indigenas-em-mt/595054.

Governo do Brasil. (2021, 6 de novembro). Governo Federal reajusta as faixas de extrema pobreza e de pobreza e aumenta o valor dos benefícios assistenciais pagos a essas famílias. https://www.gov.br/pt-br/noticias/assistencia-social/2021/11/governo-federal-reajusta-as-faixas-de-extrema-pobreza-e-de-pobreza-e-aumenta-o-valor-dos-beneficios-assistenciais-pagos-a-essas-familias

Lima, M. (2021, 13 de setembro). Violência doméstica e transfeminicídio marcam o ódio ao feminino. Observatório Do Terceiro Setor. https://observatorio3setor.org.br/noticias/violencia-domestica-e-transfeminicidio-marcam-o-odio-ao-feminino/.

Magno, A. (2021, 8 de novembro). Bolsa Família é oficialmente extinto hoje, 8; entenda o que muda. OPOVO. https://www.opovo.com.br/noticias/economia/2021/11/08/calendario-bolsa-familia-2021-auxilio-brasil-consulta-cpf-pagamento.html

Marra, P. (2021, 3 de novembro). Pais ficam divididos sobre aulas 100% presenciais na rede pública. Estudante. https://www.correiobraziliense.com.br/euestudante/educacao-basica/2021/11/4960151-volta-100-presencial-das-aulas-na-rede-publica.html.

McCoy, T. (2021, October 31). U.S. missionaries have long tried to convert the ‘unreached’ in the Amazon. Now Indigenous groups are fighting back. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/31/brazil-amazon-christian-missionary/.

Naomi, A. (2021, 6 de dezembro). Educação e pandemia: Os impactos do isolamento na volta às aulas presenciais. CNN Brasil. https://www.cnnbrasil.com.br/nacional/educacao-e-pandemia-os-impactos-do-isolamento-na-volta-as-aulas-presenciais/.

Pereira Vieceli, C. (2021, November 3). Brazil: COVID Pandemic Worsens Gender Inequalities. AULA Blog. https://aulablog.net/2021/11/03/brazil-covid-pandemic-worsens-gender-inequalities/.

Prange, A. (2021, October 18). Brazil: Bolsonaro′s veto on free menstrual products sparks outrage. DW.Com. https://www.dw.com/en/brazil-bolsonaros-veto-on-free-menstrual-products-sparks-outrage/a-59538840.

Prazeres, L. (2021, 20 de outubro). CPI da Covid: Por que papel de Bolsonaro e genocídio dividem senadores em relatório final. BBC News Brasil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-58975945.

Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. (2021, 16 de outubro). ‘Outra estação’ discute impactos da pandemia para crianças de zero a seis anos. https://ufmg.br/comunicacao/noticias/outra-estacao-discute-impactos-da-pandemia-para-criancas-de-zero-a-seis-anos.

Governance and the Rule of Law Spring 2021:

Borelli, L. & Goes, G. (2020, July 1). Interstate heterogeneity and combatting COVID-19 in Brazil. Centre for Economic Policy Research. Retrieved from https://voxeu.org/article/interstate-heterogeneity-and-combatting-covid-19-brazil.

Coordinadora Regional de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales (CRIES). (2020, July 15). Brasil: Crisis y Geopolítica Post-COVID-19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STC8qNFUigM.

The Economist. (2021, March 26). Brazil’s mismanagement of covid-19 threatens the world. https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2021/03/27/brazils-mismanagement-of-covid-19-threatens-the-world

Exame. (2020, May 12). Brasil está voltando ao mapa da fome, diz director da ONU. https://exame.com/brasil/brasil-esta-voltando-ao-mapa-da-fome-diz-diretor-da-onu/.

Folha de S. Paul. (2021, March 24). Após um ano e 300 mil mortes, Bolsonaro anuncia comitê anti-covid defende vacinação e prega tratamento precoce. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/equilibrioesaude/2021/03/apos-reuniao-com-poderes-bolsonaro-anuncia-comite-defende-vacinacao-e-prega-tratamento-precoce.shtml

Franco, L. (2020, June 8). Protestos da oposição mostram que Bolsonaro não domina mais as ruas, dizem pesquisadores. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-52959423.

Globo. (2021, February 27). Mapa da Vacinação contra Covid-19 no Brasil.https://especiais.g1.globo.com/bemestar/vacina/2021/mapa-brasil-vacina-covid/

————. (2021, March 24). Brasil aplicou ao menos uma dose de vacina em mais de 13,3 milhões, aponta consórcio de veículos de imprensa. https://g1.globo.com/bemestar/vacina/noticia/2021/03/24/brasil-aplicou-ao-menos-uma-dose-de-vacina-em-mais-de-133-milhoes-aponta-consorcio-de-veiculos-de-imprensa.ghtml

Governo Federal. (2020, June 2). Medidas econômicas voltadas para a redução dos impactos do Covid-19 (Coronavírus) – linha do tempo. https://www.gov.br/economia/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/publicacoes/boletins/covid-19/timeline.

Instituto de Estudos para Políticas de Saúde. (2020, June 3). A Pandemia de COVID-19 e os Profissionais de Saúde Pública no Brasil. https://ieps.org.br/2020/06/03/a-pandemia-de-covid-19-e-os-profissionais-de-saude-publica-no-brasil/.

Ionova, A. (2020, October 29). Brazil’s First Wave Isn’t Over Yet. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/29/brazils-first-wave-not-over-yet-coronavirus-pandemic-manaus-bolsonaro/.

Lichfield, G. (2020, September 16). COVID-19 is helping turn Brazil into a surveillance state (podcast). MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/09/16/1008495/podcast-covid-19-brazil-surveillance-state/.

Lotta, G. et al. (2020, November 13). Who is responsible for Brazil’s COVID-19 catastrophe? London School of Economics. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2020/11/13/who-is-responsible-for-brazils-covid-19-catastrophe/.

Muñoz, C. (2020, June 3). Brazil Suffers its Own Scourge of Police Brutality. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/03/brazil-suffers-its-own-scourge-police-brutality.

Osborn, C. (2020, May 27). How Brazil’s COVID-19 response has fallen to community leaders. The New Humanitarian. https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/news/2020/05/27/Brazil-coronavirus-response-community-leaders.

Smith, A. (2020). Covid vs. Democracy: Brazil’s Populist Playbook. Journal of Democracy, (4), 76-90.

Trauman, T. (2020, August 31). Rio’s Beaches Are Proof: Bolsonaro Is Winning the Narrative on COVID-19. Americas Quarterly. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/rios-beaches-are-proof-bolsonaro-is-winning-the-narrative-on-covid-19/.

Slattery, G. & Brito, R. (2020, September 25). The ventilators never came: How graft hampered Brazil’s COVID-19 response. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-brazil-corruption/the-ventilators-never-came-how-graft-hampered-brazils-covid-19-response-idUKKCN26G1EW.

Wenzel, F. et al. (2021, March 25). Brazil launches a new Covid-19 ‘crisis committee.’ CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/03/25/americas/brazil-crisis-committee-intl/index.html

Growth and Innovation Spring 2021:

AFP. (2020, August 2). Novas favelas surgem no Brasil em resposta a crise sanitária do novo coronavírus. DomTotal. https://domtotal.com/noticia/1462906/2020/08/novas-favelas-surgem-no-brasil-em-resposta-a-crise-sanitaria-do-novo-coronavirus/.

Canuto, O. (2020, July 2). Brazil’s Economic Crossroads: Which Path Will It Choose? Americas Quarterly. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/brazils-economic-crossroads-which-path-will-it-choose/.

Estela de Sousa Pinto, A. (2020, September 8). Número de alunos por classe eleva impacto da Covid-19 na educação do Brasil, indica OCDE. Folha de São Paulo. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2020/09/numero-de-alunos-por-classe-eleva-impacto-da-covid-19-na-educacao-do-brasil-indica-ocde.shtml.

Fagundes, A. et al. (2021, February18). Covid-19 no Brasil. Marcas da pandemia. Economico Valor. https://valor.globo.com/coronavirus/a-economia-na-pandemia/

Lopes dos Santos, K. et al. (2020, June 26). São Paulo’s informal entrepreneurs have innovated to adapt to COVID-19, but their underlying vulnerability is nothing to celebrate. London School of Economics. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2020/06/26/sao-paulos-informal-entrepreneurs-have-innovated-to-adapt-to-covid-19-but-their-underlying-vulnerability-is-nothing-to-celebrate/.

McGeever, J. (2020, October 7). Brazil’s economic priority is jobs, not fiscal discipline. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-economy-unemployment-analysis/brazils-economic-priority-is-jobs-not-fiscal-discipline-idUSKBN26S1OY.

Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações. (2021, March 26). MCTI detalha pesquisas sobre vacina brasileira protocolada quinta-feira (25), na Anvisa. https://www.gov.br/mcti/pt-br/acompanhe-o-mcti/noticias/2021/03/mcti-detalha-pesquisas-sobre-vacina-brasileira-protocolada-na-anvisa

Mori, L. (2020, July 2). Brasil deve deixar de bancar empresas ineficientes para dar dinheiro a famílias necessitadas no pós-pandemia, diz BID. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/internacional-53259450.

Neri, M. & Osorio, M. C. (2020, October). Tempo para Escola na Pandemia. Fundação Getulio Vargas. https://cps.fgv.br/pesquisas/tempo-para-escola-na-pandemia.

Nogueira, M. et al. (2020, June 3). Os impactos do COVID-19 no precarizado mercado laboral brasileiro demandam políticas abrangentes como a renda básica universal. London School of Economics. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2020/06/03/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-brazils-precarious-labour-market-calls-for-far-reaching-policies-like-universal-basic-income/.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020, April 29). COVID-19: Brazil’s irresponsible economic and social policies put millions of lives at risk, UN experts say. https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25842&LangID=E.

Rache, B. et al. (2020, April). Para Além do Custeio: Necessidades de Investimento em Leitos de UTI no SUS sob Diferentes Cenários da COVID-19. Instituto de Estudos para Políticas de Saúde. https://ieps.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/IEPS-NT7.pdf.

Scalzaretto, N. (2020, July 14). The pandemic could create a golden opportunity for Brazil’s industry. The Brazilian Report. https://brazilian.report/business/2020/07/14/pandemic-could-create-golden-opportunity-brazil-industry/.

Veras Motta, C. (2020, September 28). Como a pandemia pode acelerar a desindustrialização do Brasil. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-54284575.

Wilson Center. (2020, May 27). Healthcare in a Post-COVID-19 Brazil: Pathways for Public-Private Partnerships (webinar). https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/webcast-healthcare-post-covid-19-brazil-pathways-public-private-partnerships.

————. (2020, June 5). Brazil’s Post-Pandemic Economy. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/brazils-post-pandemic-economy.

World Bank. (2020, October 29). World Bank approves loan supporting the expansion of the Bolsa Familia Program (press release). https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2020/10/29/world-bank-approves-loan-supporting-expansion-of-bolsa-familia-program.

————. (2020, July 10). Covid -19 in Brazil: Impacts and policy responses. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/brazil/publication/covid-19-in-brazil-impacts-policy-responses

Social and Cultural Inclusion Spring 2021:

Articulação dos Povos Indígenas do Brasil (APIB). (2020, May 14). Indigenous Lives and Covid-19. http://apib.info/2020/05/14/01-indigenous-lives-and-covid-19/?lang=en.

BBC Trending. (2021, May 8). The misinformation bubble threatening Brazil’s indigenous people. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-56919424.

Castro, R. (2021, March 15). Brazil faces the worst scenario since the beginning of the pandemic. Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. https://portal.fiocruz.br/en/news/brazil-faces-worst-scenario-beginning-pandemic

Criola. (2020, July 17). Mulheres Negras Informadas e Contra a Violência Durante a Covid19. https://criola.org.br/mulheres-negras-informadas-e-contra-a-violencia-durante-a-covid19/.

de Souza Santos, D. et al. (2020, July 28). Disproportionate Impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Among Pregnant and Postpartum Black Women in Brazil Through Structural Racism Lens. Clinical Infectious Diseases. https://academic.oup.com/cid/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cid/ciaa1066/5877027.

Fórum Brasileiro de Segurança Pública. (2020, April 16). Violência Doméstica Durante a Pandemia de Covid-19. http://forumseguranca.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/violencia-domestica-covid-19-v3.pdf.

Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI). (2020, July 1). FUNAI Terá Novo Canal de Atendimento a Indígenas Para Combate à Covid-19. http://www.funai.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/noticias/6246-funai-tera-novo-canal-de-atendimento-a-indigenas-para-combate-a-covid-19.

Fundo de População das Nações Unidas. (2020, May 20). Povos Indígenas e a pandemia da Covid-19 (webinar). https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-bEkUpOJJEOROeubuB67xA.

Governo do Brasil. (2021, May 14). Mais de 154 mil chips foram entregues. https://www.gov.br/pt-br/noticias/educacao-e-pesquisa/2021/05/mais-de-154-mil-chips-foram-entregues.

Governo Federal. (2020, September 22). Discurso do Presidente da República, Jair Bolsonaro, na abertura da 75ª Assembleia Geral da Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU) (transcript). https://www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-planalto/discursos/2020/discurso-do-presidente-da-republica-jair-bolsonaro-na-abertura-da-75a-assembleia-geral-da-organizacao-das-nacoes-unidas-onu.

Hugueney, V. & Irnaldo, F. (2020, May 19). Coronavirus Threatens Indigenous Venezuelans Seeking Safety in Brazil. UNHCR. https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/stories/2020/5/5ec2f2b94/coronavirus-threatens-indigenous-venezuelans-seeking-safety-brazil.html.

Langlois, J. (2020, November 13). Losing elders to COVID-19 endangers Indigenous languages. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2020/11/losing-elders-to-covid-19-endangers-indigenous-languages/.

Marteleto, P. (2021, March 26). Scarred by Zika and fearing new COVID-19 variants, Brazilian women say no to another pandemic pregnancy. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/scarred-by-zika-and-fearing-new-covid-19-variants-brazilian-women-say-no-to-another-pandemic-pregnancy-158366.

McCoy, T. & Traiano, H. (2020, September 4). In the Amazon, the coronavirus fuels an illegal gold rush — and an environmental crisis. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/in-the-amazon-the-coronavirus-fuels-an-illegal-gold-rush–and-an-environmental-crisis/2020/09/03/0a4c62e6-e624-11ea-970a-64c73a1c2392_story.html.

Observatório de Favelas. (2020, May 26). Alerta Sobre a Responsabilidade Pelas Mortes Evitáveis por Covid-19. http://of.org.br/en/noticias-analises/alerta-sobre-a-responsabilidade-pelas-mortes-evitaveis-por-covid-19/.

Odara Instituto da Mulher Negra. (2020, April 5). Organizações da Sociedade Civil na Bahia Lançam Campanha para Enfrentar os Impactos do Covid-19 e Apoiar Famílias Vulneráveis. https://institutoodara.org.br/organizacoes-da-sociedade-civil-na-bahia-lancam-campanha-para-enfrentar-os-impactos-do-covid-19-e-apoiar-familias-vulneraveis/.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020, July 6). Brazil: Fighting the Double Epidemic of Racism and Covid-19. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DalilaNegreiros.aspx.

Redes da Maré. (n.d.). Podcast Maré em Tempos de Coronavírus. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://www.redesdamare.org.br/br/artigo/94/podcast-mare-em-tempos-de-coronavirus.

Rio on Watch. (n.d.). Painel Unificador Covid-19 nas Favelas do Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/8b055bf091b742bca021221e8ca73cd7/.

Rollemberg, M. (n.d). A cultura como arma contra a pandemia. Jornal da USP. https://jornal.usp.br/cultura/a-cultura-como-arma-contra-a-pandemia/

Wilson Center. (2020, June 4). Healthcare Inequality and the Covid-19 Pandemic in Brazil. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/healthcare-inequality-and-covid-19-pandemic-brazil.

Governance and the Rule of Law Fall 2020:

BBC News Brasil. (2020, November 10). CoronaVac: por que a Anvisa determinou a paralisação dos testes com a vacina da Sinovac/Butantan. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-54885955.

Coordinadora Regional de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales (CRIES). (2020, July 15). Brasil: Crisis y Geopolítica Post-COVID-19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STC8qNFUigM.

Exame. (2020, May 12). Brasil está voltando ao mapa da fome, diz director da ONU. https://exame.com/brasil/brasil-esta-voltando-ao-mapa-da-fome-diz-diretor-da-onu/.

Franco, L. (2020, June 8). Protestos da oposição mostram que Bolsonaro não domina mais as ruas, dizem pesquisadores. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-52959423.

Ionova, A. (2020, October 29). Brazil’s First Wave Isn’t Over Yet. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/29/brazils-first-wave-not-over-yet-coronavirus-pandemic-manaus-bolsonaro/.

Muñoz, C. (2020, June 3). Brazil Suffers its Own Scourge of Police Brutality. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/03/brazil-suffers-its-own-scourge-police-brutality.

Smith, A. (2020). Covid vs. Democracy: Brazil’s Populist Playbook. Journal of Democracy, (4), 76-90.

Growth and Innovation Fall 2020:

Neri, M. & Osorio, M. C. (2020, October). Tempo para Escola na Pandemia. Fundação Getulio Vargas. https://cps.fgv.br/pesquisas/tempo-para-escola-na-pandemia.

Veras Motta, C. (2020, September 28). Como a pandemia pode acelerar a desindustrialização do Brasil. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-54284575.

————. (2020, June 5). Brazil’s Post-Pandemic Economy. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/brazils-post-pandemic-economy.

Social and Cultural Inclusion Fall 2020:

Articulação dos Povos Indígenas do Brasil (APIB). (2020, May 14). Indigenous Lives and Covid-19. http://apib.info/2020/05/14/01-indigenous-lives-and-covid-19/?lang=en.

Criola. (2020, July 17). Mulheres Negras Informadas e Contra a Violência Durante a Covid19. https://criola.org.br/mulheres-negras-informadas-e-contra-a-violencia-durante-a-covid19/.

Fundo de População das Nações Unidas. (2020, May 20). Povos Indígenas e a pandemia da Covid-19 (webinar). https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-bEkUpOJJEOROeubuB67xA.

McCoy, T. & Traiano, H. (2020, September 4). In the Amazon, the coronavirus fuels an illegal gold rush — and an environmental crisis. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/in-the-amazon-the-coronavirus-fuels-an-illegal-gold-rush–and-an-environmental-crisis/2020/09/03/0a4c62e6-e624-11ea-970a-64c73a1c2392_story.html.

Redes da Maré. (n.d.). Podcast Maré em Tempos de Coronavírus. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://www.redesdamare.org.br/br/artigo/94/podcast-mare-em-tempos-de-coronavirus.

Rio on Watch. (n.d.). Painel Unificador Covid-19 nas Favelas do Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/8b055bf091b742bca021221e8ca73cd7/.

Wilson Center. (2020, June 4). Healthcare Inequality and the Covid-19 Pandemic in Brazil. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/healthcare-inequality-and-covid-19-pandemic-brazil.

Governance and the Rule of Law Summer 2020:

Coordinadora Regional de Investigaciones Económicas y Sociales (CRIES). (2020, July 15). Brasil: Crisis y Geopolítica Post-COVID-19. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=STC8qNFUigM.

Democracy Now! (2020, July 10). Brazilian Epidemiologist Slams Bolsonaro’s COVID Response as Far-Right President Tests Positive. https://www.democracynow.org/2020/7/10/brazil_bolsonaro_coronavirus.

The Dialogue. (2020, May 7). Beleaguered Brazil (webinar). https://www.thedialogue.org/events/online-event-beleaguered-brazil-bolsonaro-after-moro/.

Exame. (2020, May 12). Brasil está voltando ao mapa da fome, diz director da ONU. https://exame.com/brasil/brasil-esta-voltando-ao-mapa-da-fome-diz-diretor-da-onu/.

Filho, A. S. (2020, July 14). Coronavirus: how Brazil became the second worst affected country in the world. King’s College London. https://www.kcl.ac.uk/coronavirus-how-brazil-became-the-second-worst-affected-country-in-the-world.

Franco, L. (2020, June 8). Protestos da oposição mostram que Bolsonaro não domina mais as ruas, dizem pesquisadores. BBC News Brazil. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-52959423.

International Federation of the Red Cross. (2020, May 5). Brazilian Red Cross COVID-19 preparedness profile. https://go.ifrc.org/emergencies/4089#additional-information.

Latino USA/Associated Press. (2020, June 9). Concealing Virus Is Latest Bolsonaro Effort To Shore Up Base. https://www.latinousa.org/2020/06/09/concealingvirusbolsonaro/.

University of Cambridge. (2020, May 5). Bolsonaro’s attitude to coronavirus increases ‘risky behaviour’ in Brazil. https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/bolsonaros-attitude-to-coronavirus-increases-risky-behaviour-in-brazil.

Muñoz, C. (2020, June 3). Brazil Suffers its Own Scourge of Police Brutality. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/03/brazil-suffers-its-own-scourge-police-brutality.

Saxena, S. (2020, July 2). Fake News, Hiding Data and Profits: How COVID-19 Spun Out of Control in Brazil. The Wire. https://thewire.in/health/brazil-jair-bolsonaro-covid-19.

Wilson Center. (2020, June 6). The Latest Political Crisis in Brazil. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/audio/episode-3-latest-political-crisis-brazil.

Growth and Innovation Summer 2020:

Atlantic Council. (2020, April 16). COVID-19 in Brazil: Health, political, and economic implications of the pandemic (webinar). https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/event/covid19-health-politics-and-economics-in-brazil/.

Atlantic Council. (2020, May 20). China-Brazil relations under COVID-19. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/news/event-recaps/china-brazil-relations-under-covid-19/.

Harris, B. & Schipani, A. (2020, June 17). Virus compounds Brazil’s prolonged economic slump. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/8f47d0b7-54e6-42f2-aa74-4a100508c849.

KPMG. (2020, July 8). Brazil: Government and institutional measures in response to COVID-19. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2020/04/brazil-government-and-institution-measures-in-response-to-covid.html.

Margolis, M. (2020, April 20). Coronavirus Reverses Brazil’s Economic Revolution. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2020-04-20/coronavirus-reverses-brazil-s-economic-revolution.

Nogueira, M., et al. (2020, June 3).The impact of COVID-19 on Brazil’s precarious labour market calls for far-reaching policies like universal basic income. London School of Economics. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2020/06/03/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-brazils-precarious-labour-market-calls-for-far-reaching-policies-like-universal-basic-income/.

Rache, B., et al. (2020, April). Para Além do Custeio: Necessidades de Investimento em Leitos de UTI no SUS sob Diferentes Cenários da COVID-19. Instituto de Estudos para Políticas de Saúde. https://ieps.org.br/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/IEPS-NT7.pdf.

Wheatley, J. & Schipani, A. (2020, April 19). Bolsonaro, Brazil and the coronavirus crisis in emerging markets. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/3d113fba-8096-11ea-82f6-150830b3b99a.

Wilson Center. (2020, June 5). Brazil’s Post-Pandemic Economy. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/brazils-post-pandemic-economy.

Social and Cultural Inclusion Summer 2020:

Aguilar, M. & Pereira, B. (2020, May 11). Black Brazilian Women Take Bold Action Against Gender-Based Violence. Open Democracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/black-brazilian-women-take-bold-action-against-gender-based-violence/.

Articulação dos Povos Indígenas do Brasil (APIB). (2020, May 14). Indigenous Lives and Covid-19. http://apib.info/2020/05/14/01-indigenous-lives-and-covid-19/?lang=en.

Barros, A., et al. (2020, May 30). Remarkable Variability ins SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies Across Brazilian Regions: Nationwide Serological Survey in 27 States. https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.05.30.20117531v1

Biller, D. & Savarese, M. (2020, June 9). Concealing Virus is Latest Bolsonaro Effort to Shore Up Base. Latino USA. https://www.latinousa.org/2020/06/09/concealingvirusbolsonaro/.

Criola. (2020, July 17). Mulheres Negras Informadas e Contra a Violência Durante a Covid19. https://criola.org.br/mulheres-negras-informadas-e-contra-a-violencia-durante-a-covid19/.

Fundo de População das Nações Unidas. (2020, May 20). Povos Indígenas e a pandemia da Covid-19 (webinar). https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC-bEkUpOJJEOROeubuB67xA.

London School of Economics. (2020, May 26). Os Impactos do Covid-19 no Precarizado Mercado Laboral Brasileiro Demandam Políticas Abrangentes Como a Renda Básica Universal. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/latamcaribbean/2020/05/26/os-impactos-do-covid-19-no-precarizado-mercado-laboral-brasileiro-demandam-politicas-abrangentes-como-a-renda-basica-universal/.

Redes da Maré. (n.d.). Podcast Maré em Tempos de Coronavírus. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://www.redesdamare.org.br/br/artigo/94/podcast-mare-em-tempos-de-coronavirus.

Rio on Watch. (n.d.). Painel Unificador Covid-19 nas Favelas do Rio de Janeiro. Retrieved July 23, 2020, from: https://experience.arcgis.com/experience/8b055bf091b742bca021221e8ca73cd7/.

Wilson Center. (2020, June 4). Healthcare Inequality and the Covid-19 Pandemic in Brazil. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/healthcare-inequality-and-covid-19-pandemic-brazil.

See archived resources

BBC News Brasil. (2020, November 10). CoronaVac: por que a Anvisa determinou a paralisação dos testes com a vacina da Sinovac/Butantan. https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-54885955.